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<chapter id="vm">
  <chapterinfo>
    <authorgroup>
      <author>
	<firstname>Matthew</firstname>
	<surname>Dillon</surname>
	<contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
      </author>
    </authorgroup>
    <!-- 6 Feb 1999 -->
  </chapterinfo>

  <title>Virtual Memory System</title>

    <sect1 id="vm-physmem">
      <title>Management of physical
	memory&mdash;<literal>vm_page_t</literal></title>
      
      <para>Physical memory is managed on a page-by-page basis through the
	<literal>vm_page_t</literal> structure.  Pages of physical memory are
	categorized through the placement of their respective
	<literal>vm_page_t</literal> structures on one of several paging
	queues.</para>

      <para>A page can be in a wired, active, inactive, cache, or free state.
	Except for the wired state, the page is typically placed in a doubly
	link list queue representing the state that it is in.  Wired pages
	are not placed on any queue.</para>

      <para>FreeBSD implements a more involved paging queue for cached and
	free pages in order to implement page coloring.  Each of these states
	involves multiple queues arranged according to the size of the
	processor's L1 and L2 caches.  When a new page needs to be allocated,
	FreeBSD attempts to obtain one that is reasonably well aligned from
	the point of view of the L1 and L2 caches relative to the VM object
	the page is being allocated for.</para>

      <para>Additionally, a page may be held with a reference count or locked
	with a busy count.  The VM system also implements an <quote>ultimate
	locked</quote> state for a page using the PG_BUSY bit in the page's
	flags.</para>

      <para>In general terms, each of the paging queues operates in a LRU
	fashion.  A page is typically placed in a wired or active state
	initially.  When wired, the page is usually associated with a page
	table somewhere.  The VM system ages the page by scanning pages in a
	more active paging queue (LRU) in order to move them to a less-active
	paging queue.  Pages that get moved into the cache are still
	associated with a VM object but are candidates for immediate reuse.
	Pages in the free queue are truly free.  FreeBSD attempts to minimize
	the number of pages in the free queue, but a certain minimum number of
	truly free pages must be maintained in order to accommodate page
	allocation at interrupt time.</para>

      <para>If a process attempts to access a page that does not exist in its
	page table but does exist in one of the paging queues (such as the
	inactive or cache queues), a relatively inexpensive page reactivation
	fault occurs which causes the page to be reactivated. If the page
	does not exist in system memory at all, the process must block while
	the page is brought in from disk.</para>

      <para>FreeBSD dynamically tunes its paging queues and attempts to
	maintain reasonable ratios of pages in the various queues as well as
	attempts to maintain a reasonable breakdown of clean vs. dirty pages.
	The amount of rebalancing that occurs depends on the system's memory
	load.  This rebalancing is implemented by the pageout daemon and
	involves laundering dirty pages (syncing them with their backing
	store), noticing when pages are activity referenced (resetting their
	position in the LRU queues or moving them between queues), migrating
	pages between queues when the queues are out of balance, and so forth.
	FreeBSD's VM system is willing to take a reasonable number of
	reactivation page faults to determine how active or how idle a page
	actually is.  This leads to better decisions being made as to when to
	launder or swap-out a page.</para>
    </sect1>
    
    <sect1 id="vm-cache">
      <title>The unified buffer
	cache&mdash;<literal>vm_object_t</literal></title>
	  
      <para>FreeBSD implements the idea of a generic <quote>VM object</quote>.
	VM objects can be associated with backing store of various
	types&mdash;unbacked, swap-backed, physical device-backed, or
	file-backed storage.  Since the filesystem uses the same VM objects to
	manage in-core data relating to files, the result is a unified buffer
	cache.</para>

      <para>VM objects can be <emphasis>shadowed</emphasis>.  That is, they
	can be stacked on top of each other.  For example, you might have a
	swap-backed VM object stacked on top of a file-backed VM object in
	order to implement a MAP_PRIVATE mmap()ing.  This stacking is also
	used to implement various sharing properties, including
	copy-on-write, for forked address spaces.</para>

      <para>It should be noted that a <literal>vm_page_t</literal> can only be
	associated with one VM object at a time.  The VM object shadowing
	implements the  perceived sharing of the same page across multiple
	instances.</para>
    </sect1>
    
    <sect1 id="vm-fileio">
      <title>Filesystem I/O&mdash;<literal>struct buf</literal></title>
      
      <para>vnode-backed VM objects, such as file-backed objects, generally
	need to maintain their own clean/dirty info independent from the VM
	system's idea of clean/dirty.  For example, when the VM system decides
	to  synchronize a physical page to its backing store, the VM system
	needs to mark the page clean before the page is actually written to
	its backing store.  Additionally, filesystems need to be able to map
	portions of a file or file metadata into KVM in order to operate on
	it.</para>

      <para>The entities used to manage this are known as filesystem buffers,
	<literal>struct buf</literal>'s, or
	<literal>bp</literal>'s.  When a filesystem needs to operate on a
	portion of a VM object, it typically maps part of the object into a
	struct buf and the maps the pages in the struct buf into KVM.  In the
	same manner, disk I/O is typically issued by mapping portions of
	objects into buffer structures and  then issuing the I/O on the buffer
	structures.  The underlying  vm_page_t's are typically busied for the
	duration of the I/O.  Filesystem buffers also have their own notion of
	being busy, which is useful to filesystem driver code which would
	rather operate on filesystem buffers instead of hard VM pages.</para>

      <para>FreeBSD reserves a limited amount of KVM to hold mappings from
	struct bufs, but it should be made clear that this KVM is used solely
	to hold mappings and does not limit the ability to cache data.
	Physical data caching is strictly a function of
	<literal>vm_page_t</literal>'s, not filesystem buffers.  However,
	since filesystem buffers are used to placehold I/O, they do inherently
	limit the amount of concurrent I/O possible.  However, as there are usually a
	few thousand filesystem buffers available, this is not usually a
	problem.</para>
    </sect1>
    
    <sect1 id="vm-pagetables">
      <title>Mapping Page Tables&mdash;<literal>vm_map_t, vm_entry_t</literal></title>
      
      <para>FreeBSD separates the physical page table topology from the VM
	system.  All hard per-process page tables can be reconstructed on  the
	fly and are usually considered throwaway.  Special page tables such as
	those managing KVM are typically permanently preallocated. These page
	tables are not throwaway.</para>

      <para>FreeBSD associates portions of vm_objects with address ranges in
	virtual memory through <literal>vm_map_t</literal> and
	<literal>vm_entry_t</literal> structures.  Page tables are directly
	synthesized from the
	<literal>vm_map_t</literal>/<literal>vm_entry_t</literal>/
	<literal>vm_object_t</literal> hierarchy.  Recall that I mentioned
	that physical pages  are only directly associated with a
	<literal>vm_object</literal>; that is not quite true.
	<literal>vm_page_t</literal>'s are also linked into page tables that
	they are actively associated with.  One <literal>vm_page_t</literal>
	can be linked into  several <emphasis>pmaps</emphasis>, as page tables
	are called.  However, the hierarchical association holds, so all
	references to the same page in the same object reference the same
	<literal>vm_page_t</literal> and thus give us buffer cache unification
	across the board.</para>
    </sect1>
      
    <sect1 id="vm-kvm">
      <title>KVM Memory Mapping</title>
      
      <para>FreeBSD uses KVM to hold various kernel structures.  The single
	largest entity held in KVM is the filesystem buffer cache.  That is,
	mappings relating to <literal>struct buf</literal> entities.</para>

      <para>Unlike Linux, FreeBSD does <emphasis>not</emphasis> map all of physical memory into
	KVM.  This means that FreeBSD can handle memory configurations up to
	4G on 32 bit platforms.  In fact, if the mmu were capable of it,
	FreeBSD could theoretically handle memory configurations up to 8TB on
	a 32 bit platform.  However, since most 32 bit platforms are only
	capable of mapping 4GB of ram, this is a moot point.</para>

        <para>KVM is managed through several mechanisms.  The main mechanism
	  used to manage KVM is the <emphasis>zone allocator</emphasis>.  The
	  zone allocator takes a chunk of KVM and splits it up into
	  constant-sized blocks of memory in order to allocate a specific type
	  of structure.  You can use <command>vmstat -m</command> to get an
	  overview of current KVM  utilization broken down by zone.</para>
    </sect1>
    
    <sect1 id="vm-tuning">
      <title>Tuning the FreeBSD VM system</title>
      
      <para>A concerted effort has been made to make the FreeBSD kernel
	dynamically tune itself.  Typically you do not need to mess with
	anything beyond the <option>maxusers</option> and
	<option>NMBCLUSTERS</option> kernel config options.  That is, kernel
	compilation options specified in (typically)
	<filename>/usr/src/sys/i386/conf/<replaceable>CONFIG_FILE</replaceable></filename>.
	A description of all available kernel configuration options can be
	found in <filename>/usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT</filename>.</para>

      <para>In a large system configuration you may wish to increase
	<option>maxusers</option>.  Values typically range from 10 to 128.
	Note that raising <option>maxusers</option> too high can cause the
	system to overflow available KVM resulting in unpredictable operation.
	It is better to leave <option>maxusers</option> at some reasonable number and add other
	options, such as <option>NMBCLUSTERS</option>, to increase specific
	resources.</para>

      <para>If your system is going to use the network heavily, you may want
	to increase <option>NMBCLUSTERS</option>.  Typical values range from
	1024 to 4096.</para>

      <para>The <literal>NBUF</literal> parameter is also traditionally used
	to scale the system.  This parameter determines the amount of KVA the
	system can use to map filesystem buffers for I/O.  Note that this
	parameter has nothing whatsoever to do with the unified buffer cache!
	This parameter is dynamically tuned in 3.0-CURRENT and later kernels
	and should generally not be adjusted manually.  We recommend that you
	<emphasis>not</emphasis> try to specify an <literal>NBUF</literal>
	parameter.  Let the system pick it.  Too small a value can result in
	extremely inefficient filesystem operation while too large a value can
	starve the page queues by causing too many pages to become wired
	down.</para>

      <para>By default, FreeBSD kernels are not optimized.  You can set
	debugging and optimization flags with the
	<literal>makeoptions</literal> directive in the kernel configuration.
	Note that you should not use <option>-g</option> unless you can
	accommodate the large (typically 7 MB+) kernels that result.</para>

      <programlisting>makeoptions      DEBUG="-g"
makeoptions      COPTFLAGS="-O -pipe"</programlisting>

      <para>Sysctl provides a way to tune kernel parameters at run-time. You
	typically do not need to mess with any of the sysctl variables,
	especially the VM related ones.</para>

      <para>Run time VM and system tuning is relatively straightforward.
	First, use Soft Updates on your UFS/FFS filesystems whenever possible.
	<filename>/usr/src/sys/ufs/ffs/README.softupdates</filename> contains
	instructions (and restrictions) on how to configure it.</para>

      <para>Second, configure  sufficient swap.  You should have a swap
	partition configured on each physical disk, up to four, even on your
	<quote>work</quote> disks.  You should have at least 2x the swap space
	as you have main memory, and possibly even more if you do not have a
	lot of memory.  You should also size your swap partition based on the
	maximum memory configuration you ever intend to put on the machine so
	you do not have to repartition your disks later on. If you want to be
	able to accommodate a crash dump, your first swap partition must be at
	least as large as main memory and <filename>/var/crash</filename> must
	have sufficient free space to hold the dump.</para>

      <para>NFS-based swap is perfectly acceptable on 4.X or later systems,
	but you must be aware that the NFS server will take the brunt of the
	paging load.</para>
    </sect1>

</chapter>
