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<chapter id="isa-driver">
  <title>ISA device drivers</title>

  <para>
    <emphasis> 
      This chapter was written by &a.babkin; Modifications for the
      handbook made by &a.murray;, &a.wylie;, and &a.logo;.
    </emphasis>
  </para>

  <sect1 id="isa-driver-synopsis">
    <title>Synopsis</title>

    <para>This chapter introduces the issues relevant to writing a
      driver for an ISA device.  The pseudo-code presented here is
      rather detailed and reminiscent of the real code but is still
      only pseudo-code. It avoids the details irrelevant to the
      subject of the discussion. The real-life examples can be found
      in the source code of real drivers. In particular the drivers
      <literal>ep</literal> and <literal>aha</literal> are good sources of information.</para>
  </sect1>

  <sect1 id="isa-driver-basics">
    <title>Basic information</title>

    <para>A typical ISA driver would need the following include
      files:</para>

<programlisting>#include &lt;sys/module.h&gt;
#include &lt;sys/bus.h&gt;
#include &lt;machine/bus.h&gt;
#include &lt;machine/resource.h&gt;
#include &lt;sys/rman.h&gt;

#include &lt;isa/isavar.h&gt;
#include &lt;isa/pnpvar.h&gt;</programlisting>

    <para>They describe the things specific to the ISA and generic
      bus subsystem.</para>

    <para>The bus subsystem is implemented in an object-oriented
      fashion, its main structures are accessed by associated method
      functions.</para>

    <para>The list of bus methods implemented by an ISA driver is like
      one for any other bus. For a hypothetical driver named <quote>xxx</quote>
      they would be:</para>

    <itemizedlist>
      <listitem>
        <para><function>static void xxx_isa_identify (driver_t *,
          device_t);</function> Normally used for bus drivers, not
          device drivers. But for ISA devices this method may have
          special use: if the device provides some device-specific
          (non-PnP) way to auto-detect devices this routine may
          implement it.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
	<para><function>static int xxx_isa_probe (device_t
          dev);</function> Probe for a device at a known (or PnP)
          location. This routine can also accommodate device-specific
          auto-detection of parameters for partially configured
          devices.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
	<para><function>static int xxx_isa_attach (device_t
          dev);</function> Attach and initialize device.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
	<para><function>static int xxx_isa_detach (device_t
          dev);</function> Detach device before unloading the driver
          module.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
        <para><function>static int xxx_isa_shutdown (device_t
          dev);</function> Execute shutdown of the device before
          system shutdown.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
	<para><function>static int xxx_isa_suspend (device_t
          dev);</function> Suspend the device before the system goes
          to the power-save state. May also abort transition to the
          power-save state.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
	<para><function>static int xxx_isa_resume (device_t
 	  dev);</function> Resume the device activity after return
 	  from power-save state.</para>
      </listitem>

    </itemizedlist>

    <para><function>xxx_isa_probe()</function> and
      <function>xxx_isa_attach()</function> are mandatory, the rest of
      the routines are optional, depending on the device's
      needs.</para>

    <para>The driver is linked to the system with the following set of
      descriptions.</para>

<programlisting>    /* table of supported bus methods */
    static device_method_t xxx_isa_methods[] = {
        /* list all the bus method functions supported by the driver */
        /* omit the unsupported methods */
        DEVMETHOD(device_identify,  xxx_isa_identify),
        DEVMETHOD(device_probe,     xxx_isa_probe),
        DEVMETHOD(device_attach,    xxx_isa_attach),
        DEVMETHOD(device_detach,    xxx_isa_detach),
        DEVMETHOD(device_shutdown,  xxx_isa_shutdown),
        DEVMETHOD(device_suspend,   xxx_isa_suspend),
        DEVMETHOD(device_resume,    xxx_isa_resume),

	{ 0, 0 }
    };

    static driver_t xxx_isa_driver = {
        "xxx",
        xxx_isa_methods,
        sizeof(struct xxx_softc),
    };


    static devclass_t xxx_devclass;

    DRIVER_MODULE(xxx, isa, xxx_isa_driver, xxx_devclass,
        load_function, load_argument);</programlisting>

      <para>Here struct <structname>xxx_softc</structname> is a
        device-specific structure that contains private driver data
        and descriptors for the driver's resources.  The bus code
        automatically allocates one softc descriptor per device as
        needed.</para>

      <para>If the driver is implemented as a loadable module then
        <function>load_function()</function> is called to do
        driver-specific initialization or clean-up when the driver is
        loaded or unloaded and load_argument is passed as one of its
        arguments.  If the driver does not support dynamic loading (in
        other words it must always be linked into the kernel) then these
        values should be set to 0 and the last definition would look
        like:</para>

      <programlisting> DRIVER_MODULE(xxx, isa, xxx_isa_driver,
       xxx_devclass, 0, 0);</programlisting>

      <para>If the driver is for a device which supports PnP then a
        table of supported PnP IDs must be defined.  The table
        consists of a list of PnP IDs supported by this driver and
        human-readable descriptions of the hardware types and models
        having these IDs. It looks like:</para>

<programlisting>    static struct isa_pnp_id xxx_pnp_ids[] = {
        /* a line for each supported PnP ID */
        { 0x12345678,   "Our device model 1234A" },
        { 0x12345679,   "Our device model 1234B" },
        { 0,        NULL }, /* end of table */
    };</programlisting>

      <para>If the driver does not support PnP devices it still needs
        an empty PnP ID table, like:</para>

<programlisting>    static struct isa_pnp_id xxx_pnp_ids[] = {
        { 0,        NULL }, /* end of table */
    };</programlisting>

    </sect1>

    <sect1 id="isa-driver-device-t">
      <title>Device_t pointer</title>

      <para><structname>Device_t</structname> is the pointer type for
	the device structure. Here we consider only the methods
	interesting from the device driver writer's standpoint.  The
	methods to manipulate values in the device structure
	are:</para>

      <itemizedlist>

        <listitem><para><function>device_t
	  device_get_parent(dev)</function> Get the parent bus of a
	  device.</para></listitem>

        <listitem><para><function>driver_t
	  device_get_driver(dev)</function> Get pointer to its driver
	  structure.</para></listitem>

	<listitem><para><function>char
	  *device_get_name(dev)</function> Get the driver name, such
	  as <literal>"xxx"</literal> for our example.</para></listitem>

	<listitem><para><function>int device_get_unit(dev)</function>
	  Get the unit number (units are numbered from 0 for the
	  devices associated with each driver).</para></listitem>

	<listitem><para><function>char
	  *device_get_nameunit(dev)</function> Get the device name
	  including the unit number, such as <quote>xxx0</quote>, <quote>xxx1</quote> and so
	  on.</para></listitem>

	<listitem><para><function>char
	  *device_get_desc(dev)</function> Get the device
	  description. Normally it describes the exact model of device
	  in human-readable form.</para></listitem>

	<listitem><para><function>device_set_desc(dev,
	  desc)</function> Set the description. This makes the device
	  description point to the string desc which may not be
	  deallocated or changed after that.</para></listitem>

	<listitem><para><function>device_set_desc_copy(dev,
	  desc)</function> Set the description. The description is
	  copied into an internal dynamically allocated buffer, so the
	  string desc may be changed afterwards without adverse
	  effects.</para></listitem>

	<listitem><para><function>void
	  *device_get_softc(dev)</function> Get pointer to the device
	  descriptor (struct <structname>xxx_softc</structname>)
	  associated with this device.</para></listitem>

	<listitem><para><function>u_int32_t
	  device_get_flags(dev)</function> Get the flags specified for
	  the device in the configuration file.</para></listitem>

      </itemizedlist>

      <para>A convenience function <function>device_printf(dev, fmt,
	...)</function> may be used to print the messages from the
	device driver. It automatically prepends the unitname and
	colon to the message.</para>

      <para>The device_t methods are implemented in the file
        <filename>kern/bus_subr.c</filename>.</para>

    </sect1>

    <sect1 id="isa-driver-config">
      <title>Configuration file and the order of identifying and probing
	during auto-configuration</title>

      <para>The ISA devices are described in the kernel configuration file
  	like:</para>

      <programlisting>device xxx0 at isa? port 0x300 irq 10 drq 5
       iomem 0xd0000 flags 0x1 sensitive</programlisting>

      <para>The values of port, IRQ and so on are converted to the
	resource values associated with the device. They are optional,
	depending on the device's needs and abilities for
	auto-configuration. For example, some devices do not need DRQ
	at all and some allow the driver to read the IRQ setting from
	the device configuration ports. If a machine has multiple ISA
	buses the exact bus may be specified in the configuration
	line, like <literal>isa0</literal> or <literal>isa1</literal>, otherwise the device would be
	searched for on all the ISA buses.</para>

      <para><literal>sensitive</literal> is a resource requesting that this device must
	be probed before all non-sensitive devices. It is supported
	but does not seem to be used in any current driver.</para>

      <para>For legacy ISA devices in many cases the drivers are still
	able to detect the configuration parameters. But each device
	to be configured in the system must have a config line. If two
	devices of some type are installed in the system but there is
	only one configuration line for the corresponding driver, ie:
	<programlisting>device xxx0 at isa?</programlisting> then only
	one device will be configured.</para>

      <para>But for the devices supporting automatic identification by
	the means of Plug-n-Play or some proprietary protocol one
	configuration line is enough to configure all the devices in
	the system, like the one above or just simply:</para>

      <programlisting>device xxx at isa?</programlisting>

      <para>If a driver supports both auto-identified and legacy
	devices and both kinds are installed at once in one machine
	then it is enough to describe in the config file the legacy
	devices only. The auto-identified devices will be added
	automatically.</para>

      <para>When an ISA bus is auto-configured the events happen as
  	follows:</para>

      <para>All the drivers' identify routines (including the PnP
	identify routine which identifies all the PnP devices) are
	called in random order.  As they identify the devices they add
	them to the list on the ISA bus.  Normally the drivers'
	identify routines associate their drivers with the new
	devices. The PnP identify routine does not know about the
	other drivers yet so it does not associate any with the new
	devices it adds.</para>

      <para>The PnP devices are put to sleep using the PnP protocol to
        prevent them from being probed as legacy devices.</para>

      <para>The probe routines of non-PnP devices marked as
        <literal>sensitive</literal> are called.  If probe for a device went
        successfully, the attach routine is called for it.</para>

      <para>The probe and attach routines of all non-PNP devices are
  	called likewise.</para>

      <para>The PnP devices are brought back from the sleep state and
        assigned the resources they request: I/O and memory address
        ranges, IRQs and DRQs, all of them not conflicting with the
        attached legacy devices.</para>

      <para>Then for each PnP device the probe routines of all the
        present ISA drivers are called. The first one that claims the
        device gets attached.  It is possible that multiple drivers
        would claim the device with different priority; in this case, the
        highest-priority driver wins.  The probe routines must call
        <function>ISA_PNP_PROBE()</function> to compare the actual PnP
        ID with the list of the IDs supported by the driver and if the
        ID is not in the table return failure. That means that
        absolutely every driver, even the ones not supporting any PnP
        devices must call <function>ISA_PNP_PROBE()</function>, at
        least with an empty PnP ID table to return failure on unknown
        PnP devices.</para>

      <para>The probe routine returns a positive value (the error
        code) on error, zero or negative value on success.</para>

      <para>The negative return values are used when a PnP device
        supports multiple interfaces. For example, an older
        compatibility interface and a newer advanced interface which
        are supported by different drivers. Then both drivers would
        detect the device. The driver which returns a higher value in
        the probe routine takes precedence (in other words, the driver
        returning 0 has highest precedence, returning -1 is next,
        returning -2 is after it and so on). In result the devices
        which support only the old interface will be handled by the
        old driver (which should return -1 from the probe routine)
        while the devices supporting the new interface as well will be
        handled by the new driver (which should return 0 from the
        probe routine). If multiple drivers return the same value then
        the one called first wins. So if a driver returns value 0 it
        may be sure that it won the priority arbitration.</para>

      <para>The device-specific identify routines can also assign not
        a driver but a class of drivers to the device. Then all the
        drivers in the class are probed for this device, like the case
        with PnP. This feature is not implemented in any existing
        driver and is not considered further in this document.</para>

      <para>Because the PnP devices are disabled when probing the
        legacy devices they will not be attached twice (once as legacy
        and once as PnP).  But in case of device-dependent identify
        routines it is the responsibility of the driver to make sure
        that the same device will not be attached by the driver twice:
        once as legacy user-configured and once as
        auto-identified.</para>

      <para>Another practical consequence for the auto-identified
        devices (both PnP and device-specific) is that the flags can
        not be passed to them from the kernel configuration file. So
        they must either not use the flags at all or use the flags
        from the device unit 0 for all the auto-identified devices or
        use the sysctl interface instead of flags.</para>

      <para>Other unusual configurations may be accommodated by
        accessing the configuration resources directly with functions
        of families <function>resource_query_*()</function> and
        <function>resource_*_value()</function>. Their implementations
        are located in <filename>kern/subr_bus.c</filename>. The old IDE disk driver
        <filename>i386/isa/wd.c</filename> contains examples of such use. But the standard
        means of configuration must always be preferred. Leave parsing
        the configuration resources to the bus configuration
        code.</para>

    </sect1>

    <sect1 id="isa-driver-resources">
      <title>Resources</title>

      <para>The information that a user enters into the kernel
        configuration file is processed and passed to the kernel as
        configuration resources. This information is parsed by the bus
        configuration code and transformed into a value of structure
        device_t and the bus resources associated with it. The drivers
        may access the configuration resources directly using
        functions resource_* for more complex cases of
        configuration. However, generally this is neither needed nor recommended,
        so this issue is not discussed further here.</para>

      <para>The bus resources are associated with each device. They
        are identified by type and number within the type. For the ISA
        bus the following types are defined:</para>

      <itemizedlist>
	<listitem>
	  <para><emphasis>SYS_RES_IRQ</emphasis> - interrupt
	    number</para>
	</listitem>

	<listitem>
	  <para><emphasis>SYS_RES_DRQ</emphasis> - ISA DMA channel
	    number</para>
	</listitem>

	<listitem>
	  <para><emphasis>SYS_RES_MEMORY</emphasis> - range of
	    device memory mapped into the system memory space
	  </para>
	</listitem>

	<listitem>
	  <para><emphasis>SYS_RES_IOPORT</emphasis> - range of
	    device I/O registers</para>
        </listitem>
      </itemizedlist>

      <para>The enumeration within types starts from 0, so if a device
        has two memory regions it would have resources of type
        SYS_RES_MEMORY numbered 0 and 1.  The resource type has
        nothing to do with the C language type, all the resource
        values have the C language type <literal>unsigned long</literal> and must be
        cast as necessary. The resource numbers do not have to be
        contiguous, although for ISA they normally would be. The
        permitted resource numbers for ISA devices are:</para>

      <programlisting>          IRQ: 0-1
          DRQ: 0-1
          MEMORY: 0-3
          IOPORT: 0-7</programlisting>

      <para>All the resources are represented as ranges, with a start
        value and count.  For IRQ and DRQ resources the count would
        normally be equal to 1. The values for memory refer to the
        physical addresses.</para>

      <para>Three types of activities can be performed on
        resources:</para>

      <itemizedlist>
	<listitem><para>set/get</para></listitem>
	<listitem><para>allocate/release</para></listitem>
	<listitem><para>activate/deactivate</para></listitem>
      </itemizedlist>

      <para>Setting sets the range used by the resource. Allocation
        reserves the requested range that no other driver would be
        able to reserve it (and checking that no other driver reserved
        this range already). Activation makes the resource accessible
        to the driver by doing whatever is necessary for that (for
        example, for memory it would be mapping into the kernel
        virtual address space).</para>

      <para>The functions to manipulate resources are:</para>

      <itemizedlist>
	<listitem>
	  <para><function>int bus_set_resource(device_t dev, int type,
            int rid, u_long start, u_long count)</function></para>

          <para>Set a range for a resource. Returns 0 if successful,
            error code otherwise.  Normally, this function will
            return an error only if one of <literal>type</literal>,
            <literal>rid</literal>, <literal>start</literal> or
            <literal>count</literal> has a value that falls out of the
            permitted range.</para>

          <itemizedlist>
            <listitem>
              <para> dev - driver's device</para>
            </listitem>
            <listitem>
              <para> type - type of resource, SYS_RES_* </para>
            </listitem>
            <listitem>
              <para> rid - resource number (ID) within type </para>
            </listitem>
            <listitem>
              <para> start, count - resource range </para>
            </listitem>
          </itemizedlist>
        </listitem>

        <listitem>
          <para><function>int bus_get_resource(device_t dev, int type,
          int rid, u_long *startp, u_long *countp)</function></para>

          <para>Get the range of resource. Returns 0 if successful,
            error code if the resource is not defined yet.</para>
        </listitem>

        <listitem>
	  <para><function>u_long bus_get_resource_start(device_t dev,
            int type, int rid) u_long bus_get_resource_count (device_t
            dev, int type, int rid)</function></para>

          <para>Convenience functions to get only the start or
            count. Return 0 in case of error, so if the resource start
            has 0 among the legitimate values it would be impossible
            to tell if the value is 0 or an error occurred.  Luckily,
            no ISA resources for add-on drivers may have a start value
            equal to 0.</para>
        </listitem>

        <listitem>
          <para><function>void bus_delete_resource(device_t dev, int
            type, int rid)</function></para>
          <para> Delete a resource, make it undefined.</para>
        </listitem>

        <listitem>
          <para><function>struct resource *
            bus_alloc_resource(device_t dev, int type, int *rid,
            u_long start, u_long end, u_long count, u_int
            flags)</function></para>

          <para>Allocate a resource as a range of count values not
            allocated by anyone else, somewhere between start and
            end. Alas, alignment is not supported.  If the resource
            was not set yet it is automatically created. The special
            values of start 0 and end ~0 (all ones) means that the
            fixed values previously set by
            <function>bus_set_resource()</function> must be used
            instead: start and count as themselves and
            end=(start+count), in this case if the resource was not
            defined before then an error is returned.  Although rid is
            passed by reference it is not set anywhere by the resource
            allocation code of the ISA bus. (The other buses may use a
            different approach and modify it).</para>
        </listitem>
      </itemizedlist>

      <para>Flags are a bitmap, the flags interesting for the caller
        are:</para>

      <itemizedlist>
        <listitem>
          <para><emphasis>RF_ACTIVE</emphasis> - causes the resource
            to be automatically activated after allocation.</para>
        </listitem>

        <listitem>
          <para><emphasis>RF_SHAREABLE</emphasis> - resource may be
            shared at the same time by multiple drivers.</para>
        </listitem>

        <listitem>
          <para><emphasis>RF_TIMESHARE</emphasis> - resource may be
            time-shared by multiple drivers, i.e. allocated at the
            same time by many but activated only by one at any given
            moment of time.</para>
        </listitem>
<!-- XXXDONT KNOW IT THESE SHOULD BE TWO SEPARATE LISTS OR NOT -->
        <listitem>
          <para>Returns 0 on error. The allocated values may be
            obtained from the returned handle using methods
            <function>rhand_*()</function>.</para>
        </listitem>
        <listitem>
          <para><function>int bus_release_resource(device_t dev, int
            type, int rid, struct resource *r)</function></para>
	</listitem>

        <listitem>
          <para>Release the resource, r is the handle returned by
            <function>bus_alloc_resource()</function>.  Returns 0 on
            success, error code otherwise.</para>
        </listitem>

        <listitem>
          <para><function>int bus_activate_resource(device_t dev, int
            type, int rid, struct resource *r)</function>
            <function>int bus_deactivate_resource(device_t dev, int
            type, int rid, struct resource *r)</function></para>
        </listitem>

        <listitem>
          <para>Activate or deactivate resource. Return 0 on success,
            error code otherwise.  If the resource is time-shared and
            currently activated by another driver then EBUSY is
            returned.</para>
        </listitem>

        <listitem>
          <para><function>int bus_setup_intr(device_t dev, struct
            resource *r, int flags, driver_intr_t *handler, void *arg,
            void **cookiep)</function> <function>int
            bus_teardown_intr(device_t dev, struct resource *r, void
            *cookie)</function></para>
        </listitem>

        <listitem>
          <para>Associate or de-associate the interrupt handler with a
            device. Return 0 on success, error code otherwise.</para>
        </listitem>

        <listitem>
          <para>r - the activated resource handler describing the
            IRQ</para>
	  <para>flags - the interrupt priority level, one of:</para>

          <itemizedlist>
            <listitem>
              <para><function>INTR_TYPE_TTY</function> - terminals and
                other likewise character-type devices. To mask them
                use <function>spltty()</function>.</para>
            </listitem>
            <listitem>
              <para><function>(INTR_TYPE_TTY |
                INTR_TYPE_FAST)</function> - terminal type devices
                with small input buffer, critical to the data loss on
                input (such as the old-fashioned serial ports). To
                mask them use <function>spltty()</function>.</para>
            </listitem>
            <listitem>
              <para><function>INTR_TYPE_BIO</function> - block-type
                devices, except those on the CAM controllers. To mask
                them use <function>splbio()</function>.</para>
            </listitem>
            <listitem>
              <para><function>INTR_TYPE_CAM</function> - CAM (Common
                Access Method) bus controllers. To mask them use
                <function>splcam()</function>.</para>
             </listitem>
             <listitem>
               <para><function>INTR_TYPE_NET</function> - network
                interface controllers. To mask them use
                <function>splimp()</function>.</para>
             </listitem>
             <listitem>
               <para><function>INTR_TYPE_MISC</function> -
                miscellaneous devices.  There is no other way to mask
                them than by <function>splhigh()</function> which
                masks all interrupts.</para>
             </listitem>
          </itemizedlist>
        </listitem>
      </itemizedlist>

      <para>When an interrupt handler executes all the other
        interrupts matching its priority level will be masked. The
        only exception is the MISC level for which no other interrupts
        are masked and which is not masked by any other
        interrupt.</para>

      <itemizedlist>
        <listitem>
          <para><emphasis>handler</emphasis> - pointer to the handler
            function, the type driver_intr_t is defined as <function>void
            driver_intr_t(void *)</function></para>
        </listitem>
        <listitem>
          <para><emphasis>arg</emphasis> - the argument passed to the
            handler to identify this particular device. It is cast
            from void* to any real type by the handler. The old
            convention for the ISA interrupt handlers was to use the
            unit number as argument, the new (recommended) convention
            is using a pointer to the device softc structure.</para>
        </listitem>
        <listitem>
          <para><emphasis>cookie[p]</emphasis> - the value received
            from <function>setup()</function> is used to identify the
            handler when passed to
            <function>teardown()</function></para>
        </listitem>
      </itemizedlist>

      <para>A number of methods are defined to operate on the resource
        handlers (struct resource *). Those of interest to the device
        driver writers are:</para>

      <itemizedlist>
        <listitem>
          <para><function>u_long rman_get_start(r) u_long
            rman_get_end(r)</function> Get the start and end of
            allocated resource range.</para>
        </listitem>
        <listitem>
          <para><function>void *rman_get_virtual(r)</function> Get
            the virtual address of activated memory resource.</para>
        </listitem>
      </itemizedlist>

    </sect1>

    <sect1 id="isa-driver-busmem">
      <title>Bus memory mapping</title>

      <para>In many cases data is exchanged between the driver and the
        device through the memory. Two variants are possible:</para>

      <para>(a) memory is located on the device card</para>
      <para>(b) memory is the main memory of the computer</para>

      <para>In case (a) the driver always copies the data back and
        forth between the on-card memory and the main memory as
        necessary. To map the on-card memory into the kernel virtual
        address space the physical address and length of the on-card
        memory must be defined as a SYS_RES_MEMORY resource. That
        resource can then be allocated and activated, and its virtual
        address obtained using
        <function>rman_get_virtual()</function>.  The older drivers
        used the function <function>pmap_mapdev()</function> for this
        purpose, which should not be used directly any more. Now it is
        one of the internal steps of resource activation.</para>

      <para>Most of the ISA cards will have their memory configured
        for physical location somewhere in range 640KB-1MB. Some of
        the ISA cards require larger memory ranges which should be
        placed somewhere under 16MB (because of the 24-bit address
        limitation on the ISA bus). In that case if the machine has
        more memory than the start address of the device memory (in
        other words, they overlap) a memory hole must be configured at
        the address range used by devices. Many BIOSes allow
        configuration of a memory hole of 1MB starting at 14MB or
        15MB. FreeBSD can handle the memory holes properly if the BIOS
        reports them properly (this feature may be broken on old BIOSes).</para>

      <para>In case (b) just the address of the data is sent to
        the device, and the device uses DMA to actually access the
        data in the main memory. Two limitations are present: First,
        ISA cards can only access memory below 16MB.  Second, the
        contiguous pages in virtual address space may not be
        contiguous in physical address space, so the device may have
        to do scatter/gather operations. The bus subsystem provides
        ready solutions for some of these problems, the rest has to be
        done by the drivers themselves.</para>

      <para>Two structures are used for DMA memory allocation,
        bus_dma_tag_t and bus_dmamap_t. Tag describes the properties
        required for the DMA memory. Map represents a memory block
        allocated according to these properties. Multiple maps may be
        associated with the same tag.</para>

      <para>Tags are organized into a tree-like hierarchy with
        inheritance of the properties. A child tag inherits all the
        requirements of its parent tag, and may make them more strict
        but never more loose.</para>

      <para>Normally one top-level tag (with no parent) is created for
        each device unit.  If multiple memory areas with different
        requirements are needed for each device then a tag for each of
        them may be created as a child of the parent tag.</para>

      <para>The tags can be used to create a map in two ways.</para>

      <para>First, a chunk of contiguous memory conformant with the
        tag requirements may be allocated (and later may be
        freed). This is normally used to allocate relatively
        long-living areas of memory for communication with the
        device. Loading of such memory into a map is trivial: it is
        always considered as one chunk in the appropriate physical
        memory range.</para>

      <para>Second, an arbitrary area of virtual memory may be loaded
        into a map. Each page of this memory will be checked for
        conformance to the map requirement.  If it conforms then it is
        left at its original location. If it is not then a fresh
        conformant <quote>bounce page</quote> is allocated and used as intermediate
        storage. When writing the data from the non-conformant
        original pages they will be copied to their bounce pages first
        and then transferred from the bounce pages to the device. When
        reading the data would go from the device to the bounce pages
        and then copied to their non-conformant original pages. The
        process of copying between the original and bounce pages is
        called synchronization. This is normally used on a per-transfer
        basis: buffer for each transfer would be loaded, transfer done
        and buffer unloaded.</para>

      <para>The functions working on the DMA memory are:</para>

      <itemizedlist>
        <listitem>
        <para><function>int bus_dma_tag_create(bus_dma_tag_t parent,
          bus_size_t alignment, bus_size_t boundary, bus_addr_t
          lowaddr, bus_addr_t highaddr, bus_dma_filter_t *filter, void
          *filterarg, bus_size_t maxsize, int nsegments, bus_size_t
          maxsegsz, int flags, bus_dma_tag_t *dmat)</function></para>

        <para>Create a new tag. Returns 0 on success, the error code
          otherwise.</para>

        <itemizedlist>
	  <listitem>
            <para><emphasis>parent</emphasis> - parent tag, or NULL to
              create a top-level tag.</para>
	  </listitem>

	  <listitem>
            <para><emphasis>alignment</emphasis> -
              required physical alignment of the memory area to be
              allocated for this tag. Use value 1 for <quote>no specific
              alignment</quote>. Applies only to the future
              <function>bus_dmamem_alloc()</function> but not
              <function>bus_dmamap_create()</function> calls.</para>
	  </listitem>

	  <listitem>
              <para><emphasis>boundary</emphasis> - physical address
              boundary that must not be crossed when allocating the
              memory. Use value 0 for <quote>no boundary</quote>. Applies only to
              the future <function>bus_dmamem_alloc()</function> but
              not <function>bus_dmamap_create()</function> calls.
              Must be power of 2. If the memory is planned to be used
              in non-cascaded DMA mode (i.e. the DMA addresses will be
              supplied not by the device itself but by the ISA DMA
              controller) then the boundary must be no larger than
              64KB (64*1024) due to the limitations of the DMA
              hardware.</para>
          </listitem>

          <listitem>
            <para><emphasis>lowaddr, highaddr</emphasis> - the names
              are slightly misleading; these values are used to limit
              the permitted range of physical addresses used to
              allocate the memory.  The exact meaning varies depending
              on the planned future use:</para>

            <itemizedlist>
              <listitem>
                <para>For <function>bus_dmamem_alloc()</function> all
                  the addresses from 0 to lowaddr-1 are considered
                  permitted, the higher ones are forbidden.</para>
              </listitem>

              <listitem>
                <para>For <function>bus_dmamap_create()</function> all
                  the addresses outside the inclusive range [lowaddr;
                  highaddr] are considered accessible. The addresses
                  of pages inside the range are passed to the filter
                  function which decides if they are accessible. If no
                  filter function is supplied then all the range is
                  considered unaccessible.</para>
              </listitem>

              <listitem>
                <para>For the ISA devices the normal values (with no
                  filter function) are:</para>
                <para>lowaddr = BUS_SPACE_MAXADDR_24BIT</para>
                <para>highaddr = BUS_SPACE_MAXADDR</para>
              </listitem>
            </itemizedlist>

          </listitem>

          <listitem>
            <para><emphasis>filter, filterarg</emphasis> - the filter
              function and its argument. If NULL is passed for filter
              then the whole range [lowaddr, highaddr] is considered
              unaccessible when doing
              <function>bus_dmamap_create()</function>.  Otherwise the
              physical address of each attempted page in range
              [lowaddr; highaddr] is passed to the filter function
              which decides if it is accessible. The prototype of the
              filter function is: <function>int filterfunc(void *arg,
              bus_addr_t paddr)</function>. It must return 0 if the
              page is accessible, non-zero otherwise.</para>
          </listitem>

	  <listitem>
            <para><emphasis>maxsize</emphasis> - the maximal size of
              memory (in bytes) that may be allocated through this
              tag. In case it is difficult to estimate or could be
              arbitrarily big, the value for ISA devices would be
              BUS_SPACE_MAXSIZE_24BIT.</para>
          </listitem>

	  <listitem>
            <para><emphasis>nsegments</emphasis> - maximal number of
              scatter-gather segments supported by the device. If
              unrestricted then the value BUS_SPACE_UNRESTRICTED
              should be used. This value is recommended for the parent
              tags, the actual restrictions would then be specified
              for the descendant tags. Tags with nsegments equal to
              BUS_SPACE_UNRESTRICTED may not be used to actually load
              maps, they may be used only as parent tags. The
              practical limit for nsegments seems to be about 250-300,
              higher values will cause kernel stack overflow (the hardware
	      can not normally support that many
              scatter-gather buffers anyway).</para>
          </listitem>

	  <listitem>
            <para><emphasis>maxsegsz</emphasis> - maximal size of a
              scatter-gather segment supported by the device. The
              maximal value for ISA device would be
              BUS_SPACE_MAXSIZE_24BIT.</para>
          </listitem>

	  <listitem>
            <para><emphasis>flags</emphasis> - a bitmap of flags. The
              only interesting flags are:</para>

	    <itemizedlist>
	      <listitem>
                <para><emphasis>BUS_DMA_ALLOCNOW</emphasis> - requests
                  to allocate all the potentially needed bounce pages
                  when creating the tag.</para>
              </listitem>

	      <listitem>
	        <para><emphasis>BUS_DMA_ISA</emphasis> - mysterious
                  flag used only on Alpha machines. It is not defined
                  for the i386 machines.  Probably it should be used
                  by all the ISA drivers for Alpha machines but it
                  looks like there are no such drivers yet.</para>
              </listitem>
	    </itemizedlist>
	  </listitem>

          <listitem>
            <para><emphasis>dmat</emphasis> - pointer to the storage
              for the new tag to be returned.</para>
          </listitem>

	</itemizedlist>

      </listitem>

      <listitem> <!-- Second entry in list alpha -->
        <para><function>int bus_dma_tag_destroy(bus_dma_tag_t
	  dmat)</function></para>

        <para>Destroy a tag. Returns 0 on success, the error code
	  otherwise.</para>

        <para>dmat - the tag to be destroyed.</para>

      </listitem>

      <listitem> <!-- Third entry in list alpha -->
        <para><function>int bus_dmamem_alloc(bus_dma_tag_t dmat,
          void** vaddr, int flags, bus_dmamap_t
          *mapp)</function></para>

        <para>Allocate an area of contiguous memory described by the
          tag. The size of memory to be allocated is tag's maxsize.
          Returns 0 on success, the error code otherwise. The result
          still has to be loaded by
          <function>bus_dmamap_load()</function> before being used to get
          the physical address of the memory.</para>

<!-- XXX What it is Wylie, I got to here -->

            <itemizedlist>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <emphasis>dmat</emphasis> - the tag
                </para>
              </listitem>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <emphasis>vaddr</emphasis> - pointer to the storage
                  for the kernel virtual address of the allocated area
                  to be returned.
                 </para>
              </listitem>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  flags - a bitmap of flags. The only interesting flag is:
                </para>
                <itemizedlist>
                  <listitem>
                    <para>
                      <emphasis>BUS_DMA_NOWAIT</emphasis> - if the
                      memory is not immediately available return the
                      error. If this flag is not set then the routine
                      is allowed to sleep until the memory
                      becomes available.
                    </para>
                  </listitem>
                </itemizedlist>
              </listitem>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <emphasis>mapp</emphasis> - pointer to the storage
                  for the new map to be returned.
                </para>
              </listitem>
            </itemizedlist>
          </listitem>

          <listitem> <!-- Fourth entry in list alpha -->
            <para>
              <function>void bus_dmamem_free(bus_dma_tag_t dmat, void
              *vaddr, bus_dmamap_t map)</function>
            </para>
            <para>
              Free the memory allocated by
              <function>bus_dmamem_alloc()</function>. At present, 
              freeing of the memory allocated with ISA restrictions is
              not implemented.  Because of this the recommended model
              of use is to keep and re-use the allocated areas for as
              long as possible. Do not lightly free some area and then
              shortly allocate it again. That does not mean that
              <function>bus_dmamem_free()</function> should not be
              used at all: hopefully it will be properly implemented
              soon.
            </para>

            <itemizedlist>
              <listitem>
                <para><emphasis>dmat</emphasis> - the tag
                </para>
              </listitem>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <emphasis>vaddr</emphasis> - the kernel virtual
                  address of the memory
                </para>
              </listitem>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <emphasis>map</emphasis> - the map of the memory (as
                  returned from
                  <function>bus_dmamem_alloc()</function>)
                </para>
              </listitem>
            </itemizedlist>
          </listitem>

          <listitem> <!-- The fifth entry in list alpha -->
            <para>
              <function>int bus_dmamap_create(bus_dma_tag_t dmat, int
              flags, bus_dmamap_t *mapp)</function>
            </para>
            <para>
              Create a map for the tag, to be used in
              <function>bus_dmamap_load()</function> later.  Returns 0
              on success, the error code otherwise.
            </para>
            <itemizedlist>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <emphasis>dmat</emphasis> - the tag
                </para>
              </listitem>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <emphasis>flags</emphasis> - theoretically, a bit map
                  of flags. But no flags are defined yet, so at present
                  it will be always 0.
                </para>
              </listitem>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <emphasis>mapp</emphasis> - pointer to the storage
                  for the new map to be returned
                </para>
              </listitem>
            </itemizedlist>
          </listitem>

          <listitem> <!-- Sixth entry in the alpha list -->
            <para>
              <function>int bus_dmamap_destroy(bus_dma_tag_t dmat,
              bus_dmamap_t map)</function>
            </para>
            <para>
              Destroy a map. Returns 0 on success, the error code otherwise.
            </para>

            <itemizedlist>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  dmat - the tag to which the map is associated
                </para>
              </listitem>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  map - the map to be destroyed
                </para>
              </listitem>
            </itemizedlist>
          </listitem>

          <listitem> <!-- Seventh entry in list alpha -->
            <para>
              <function>int bus_dmamap_load(bus_dma_tag_t dmat,
              bus_dmamap_t map, void *buf, bus_size_t buflen,
              bus_dmamap_callback_t *callback, void *callback_arg, int
              flags)</function>
            </para>
            <para>
              Load a buffer into the map (the map must be previously
              created by <function>bus_dmamap_create()</function> or
              <function>bus_dmamem_alloc()</function>).  All the pages
              of the buffer are checked for conformance to the tag
              requirements and for those not conformant the bounce
              pages are allocated. An array of physical segment
              descriptors is built and passed to the callback
              routine. This callback routine is then expected to
              handle it in some way. The number of bounce buffers in
              the system is limited, so if the bounce buffers are
              needed but not immediately available the request will be
              queued and the callback will be called when the bounce
              buffers will become available. Returns 0 if the callback
              was executed immediately or EINPROGRESS if the request
              was queued for future execution. In the latter case the
              synchronization with queued callback routine is the
              responsibility of the driver.
            </para>
            <!--<blockquote>-->
            <itemizedlist>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <emphasis>dmat</emphasis> - the tag
                </para>
              </listitem>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <emphasis>map</emphasis> - the map
                </para>
              </listitem>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <emphasis>buf</emphasis> - kernel virtual address of
                  the buffer
                </para>
              </listitem>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <emphasis>buflen</emphasis> - length of the buffer
                </para>
              </listitem>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <emphasis>callback</emphasis>,<function>
                  callback_arg</function> - the callback function and
                  its argument
                </para>
              </listitem>
            </itemizedlist>
            <!--</blockquote>-->
            <para>
              The prototype of callback function is:
            </para>
            <para>
              <function>void callback(void *arg, bus_dma_segment_t
              *seg, int nseg, int error)</function>
            </para>
            <!--     <blockquote> -->
            <itemizedlist>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <emphasis>arg</emphasis> - the same as callback_arg
                  passed to <function>bus_dmamap_load()</function>
                </para>
              </listitem>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <emphasis>seg</emphasis> - array of the segment
                  descriptors
                </para>
              </listitem>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <emphasis>nseg</emphasis> - number of descriptors in
                  array
                </para>
              </listitem>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <emphasis>error</emphasis> - indication of the
                  segment number overflow: if it is set to EFBIG then
                  the buffer did not fit into the maximal number of
                  segments permitted by the tag. In this case only the
                  permitted number of descriptors will be in the
                  array. Handling of this situation is up to the
                  driver: depending on the desired semantics it can
                  either consider this an error or split the buffer in
                  two and handle the second part separately
                </para>
              </listitem>
            </itemizedlist>
            <!--     </blockquote>  -->
            <para>
              Each entry in the segments array contains the fields:
            </para>

            <!--   <blockquote> -->
            <itemizedlist>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <emphasis>ds_addr</emphasis> - physical bus address
                  of the segment
                </para>
              </listitem>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <emphasis>ds_len</emphasis> - length of the segment
                </para>
              </listitem>
            </itemizedlist>
            <!--   </blockquote>-->
          </listitem>

          <listitem> <!-- Eighth entry in alpha list -->
            <para>
              <function>void bus_dmamap_unload(bus_dma_tag_t dmat,
              bus_dmamap_t map)</function>
            </para>
            <para>unload the map.
            </para>
            <!--  <blockquote>  -->
            <itemizedlist>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <emphasis>dmat</emphasis> - tag
                </para>
              </listitem>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <emphasis>map</emphasis> - loaded map
                </para>
              </listitem>
            </itemizedlist>
            <!--  </blockquote>  -->
          </listitem>

          <listitem> <!-- Ninth entry list alpha -->
            <para>
              <function>void bus_dmamap_sync (bus_dma_tag_t dmat,
              bus_dmamap_t map, bus_dmasync_op_t op)</function>
            </para>
            <para>
              Synchronise a loaded buffer with its bounce pages before
              and after physical transfer to or from device. This is
              the function that does all the necessary copying of data
              between the original buffer and its mapped version. The
              buffers must be synchronized both before and after doing
              the transfer.
            </para>
            <!--  <blockquote> -->
            <itemizedlist>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <emphasis>dmat</emphasis> - tag
                </para>
              </listitem>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <emphasis>map</emphasis> - loaded map
                </para>
              </listitem>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <emphasis>op</emphasis> - type of synchronization
                  operation to perform:
                </para>
              </listitem>
            </itemizedlist>
            <!-- <blockquote> -->
            <itemizedlist>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <function>BUS_DMASYNC_PREREAD</function> - before
                  reading from device into buffer
                </para>
              </listitem>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <function>BUS_DMASYNC_POSTREAD</function> - after
                  reading from device into buffer
                </para>
              </listitem>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <function>BUS_DMASYNC_PREWRITE</function> - before
                  writing the buffer to device
                </para>
              </listitem>
              <listitem>
                <para>
                  <function>BUS_DMASYNC_POSTWRITE</function> - after
                  writing the buffer to device
                </para>
              </listitem>
            </itemizedlist>
          </listitem>
        </itemizedlist>   <!-- End of list alpha -->
<!-- </blockquote>
</blockquote> -->

        <para>
          As of now PREREAD and POSTWRITE are null operations but that
          may change in the future, so they must not be ignored in the
          driver. Synchronization is not needed for the memory
          obtained from <function>bus_dmamem_alloc()</function>.
        </para>
        <para>
          Before calling the callback function from
          <function>bus_dmamap_load()</function> the segment array is
          stored in the stack. And it gets pre-allocated for the
          maximal number of segments allowed by the tag. Because of
          this the practical limit for the number of segments on i386
          architecture is about 250-300 (the kernel stack is 4KB minus
          the size of the user structure, size of a segment array
          entry is 8 bytes, and some space must be left). Because the
          array is allocated based on the maximal number this value
          must not be set higher than really needed. Fortunately, for
          most of hardware the maximal supported number of segments is
          much lower. But if the driver wants to handle buffers with a
          very large number of scatter-gather segments it should do
          that in portions: load part of the buffer, transfer it to
          the device, load next part of the buffer, and so on.
        </para>
        <para>
          Another practical consequence is that the number of segments
          may limit the size of the buffer. If all the pages in the
          buffer happen to be physically non-contiguous then the
          maximal supported buffer size for that fragmented case would
          be (nsegments * page_size). For example, if a maximal number
          of 10 segments is supported then on i386 maximal guaranteed
          supported buffer size would be 40K. If a higher size is
          desired then special tricks should be used in the driver.
        </para>
        <para>
          If the hardware does not support scatter-gather at all or
          the driver wants to support some buffer size even if it is
          heavily fragmented then the solution is to allocate a
          contiguous buffer in the driver and use it as intermediate
          storage if the original buffer does not fit.
        </para>
        <para>
          Below are the typical call sequences when using a map depend
          on the use of the map.  The characters -> are used to show
          the flow of time.
        </para>
        <para>
          For a buffer which stays practically fixed during all the
          time between attachment and detachment of a device:</para>
        <para>
          bus_dmamem_alloc -> bus_dmamap_load -> ...use buffer... ->
          -> bus_dmamap_unload -> bus_dmamem_free
        </para>

        <para>For a buffer that changes frequently and is passed from
        outside the driver:

	<!-- XXX is this correct? -->
        <programlisting>          bus_dmamap_create ->
          -> bus_dmamap_load -> bus_dmamap_sync(PRE...) -> do transfer ->
          -> bus_dmamap_sync(POST...) -> bus_dmamap_unload ->
          ...
          -> bus_dmamap_load -> bus_dmamap_sync(PRE...) -> do transfer ->
          -> bus_dmamap_sync(POST...) -> bus_dmamap_unload ->
          -> bus_dmamap_destroy        </programlisting>

        </para>
        <para>
          When loading a map created by
          <function>bus_dmamem_alloc()</function> the passed address
          and size of the buffer must be the same as used in
          <function>bus_dmamem_alloc()</function>. In this case it is
          guaranteed that the whole buffer will be mapped as one
          segment (so the callback may be based on this assumption)
          and the request will be executed immediately (EINPROGRESS
          will never be returned).  All the callback needs to do in
          this case is to save the physical address.
        </para>
        <para>
          A typical example would be:
        </para>

        <programlisting>          static void
        alloc_callback(void *arg, bus_dma_segment_t *seg, int nseg, int error)
        {
          *(bus_addr_t *)arg = seg[0].ds_addr;
        }

          ...
          int error;
          struct somedata {
            ....
          };
          struct somedata *vsomedata; /* virtual address */
          bus_addr_t psomedata; /* physical bus-relative address */
          bus_dma_tag_t tag_somedata;
          bus_dmamap_t map_somedata;
          ...

          error=bus_dma_tag_create(parent_tag, alignment,
           boundary, lowaddr, highaddr, /*filter*/ NULL, /*filterarg*/ NULL,
           /*maxsize*/ sizeof(struct somedata), /*nsegments*/ 1,
           /*maxsegsz*/ sizeof(struct somedata), /*flags*/ 0,
           &#38;tag_somedata);
          if(error)
          return error;

          error = bus_dmamem_alloc(tag_somedata, &#38;vsomedata, /* flags*/ 0,
             &#38;map_somedata);
          if(error)
             return error;

          bus_dmamap_load(tag_somedata, map_somedata, (void *)vsomedata,
             sizeof (struct somedata), alloc_callback,
             (void *) &#38;psomedata, /*flags*/0);        </programlisting>

        <para>
          Looks a bit long and complicated but that is the way to do
          it. The practical consequence is: if multiple memory areas
          are allocated always together it would be a really good idea
          to combine them all into one structure and allocate as one
          (if the alignment and boundary limitations permit).
        </para>
        <para>
          When loading an arbitrary buffer into the map created by
          <function>bus_dmamap_create()</function> special measures
          must be taken to synchronize with the callback in case it
          would be delayed. The code would look like:
        </para>

        <programlisting>          {
           int s;
           int error;

           s = splsoftvm();
           error = bus_dmamap_load(
               dmat,
               dmamap,
               buffer_ptr,
               buffer_len,
               callback,
               /*callback_arg*/ buffer_descriptor,
               /*flags*/0);
           if (error == EINPROGRESS) {
               /*
                * Do whatever is needed to ensure synchronization
                * with callback. Callback is guaranteed not to be started
                * until we do splx() or tsleep().
                */
              }
           splx(s);
          }        </programlisting>

        <para>
          Two possible approaches for the processing of requests are:
        </para>
        <para>
          1. If requests are completed by marking them explicitly as
          done (such as the CAM requests) then it would be simpler to
          put all the further processing into the callback driver
          which would mark the request when it is done. Then not much
          extra synchronization is needed. For the flow control
          reasons it may be a good idea to freeze the request queue
          until this request gets completed.
        </para>
        <para>
          2. If requests are completed when the function returns (such
          as classic read or write requests on character devices) then
          a synchronization flag should be set in the buffer
          descriptor and <function>tsleep()</function> called.  Later
          when the callback gets called it will do its processing and
          check this synchronization flag. If it is set then the
          callback should issue a wakeup. In this approach the
          callback function could either do all the needed processing
          (just like the previous case) or simply save the segments
          array in the buffer descriptor. Then after callback
          completes the calling function could use this saved segments
          array and do all the processing.

        </para>
     </sect1>
<!--_________________________________________________________________________-->
<!--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~END OF SECTION~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-->

     <sect1 id="isa-driver-dma">
        <title>DMA</title>
        <!-- Section Marked up by Wylie -->
        <para>
          The Direct Memory Access (DMA) is implemented in the ISA bus
          through the DMA controller (actually, two of them but that is
          an irrelevant detail).  To make the early ISA devices simple
          and cheap the logic of the bus control and address
          generation was concentrated in the DMA controller.
          Fortunately, FreeBSD provides a set of functions that mostly
          hide the annoying details of the DMA controller from the
          device drivers.
        </para>

        <para>
          The simplest case is for the fairly intelligent
          devices. Like the bus master devices on PCI they can
          generate the bus cycles and memory addresses all by
          themselves. The only thing they really need from the DMA
          controller is bus arbitration. So for this purpose they
          pretend to be cascaded slave DMA controllers. And the only
          thing needed from the system DMA controller is to enable the
          cascaded mode on a DMA channel by calling the following
          function when attaching the driver:
        </para>

        <para>
          <function>void isa_dmacascade(int channel_number)</function>
        </para>

        <para>
          All the further activity is done by programming the
          device. When detaching the driver no DMA-related functions
          need to be called.
        </para>

        <para>
          For the simpler devices things get more complicated. The
          functions used are:
        </para>

        <itemizedlist>

          <listitem>
          <para>
            <function>int isa_dma_acquire(int chanel_number)</function>
          </para>
          <para>
                Reserve a DMA channel. Returns 0 on success or EBUSY
                if the channel was already reserved by this or a
                different driver. Most of the ISA devices are not able
                to share DMA channels anyway, so normally this
                function is called when attaching a device. This
                reservation was made redundant by the modern interface
                of bus resources but still must be used in addition to
                the latter. If not used then later, other DMA routines
                will panic.
          </para>
        </listitem>

        <listitem>
          <para>
            <function>int isa_dma_release(int chanel_number)</function>
          </para>
          <para>
                Release a previously reserved DMA channel. No
                transfers must be in progress when the channel is
                released (in addition the device must not try to
                initiate transfer after the channel is released).
          </para>
        </listitem>

        <listitem>
          <para>
            <function>void isa_dmainit(int chan, u_int
            bouncebufsize)</function>
          </para>
          <para>
                Allocate a bounce buffer for use with the specified
                channel. The requested size of the buffer can not exceed
                64KB. This bounce buffer will be automatically used
                later if a transfer buffer happens to be not
                physically contiguous or outside of the memory
                accessible by the ISA bus or crossing the 64KB
                boundary. If the transfers will be always done from
                buffers which conform to these conditions (such as
                those allocated by
                <function>bus_dmamem_alloc()</function> with proper
                limitations) then <function>isa_dmainit()</function>
                does not have to be called. But it is quite convenient
                to transfer arbitrary data using the DMA controller.
                The bounce buffer will automatically care of the
                scatter-gather issues.
          </para>
 <!-- <blockquote> -->
          <itemizedlist>
                <listitem>
                  <para>
                    <emphasis>chan</emphasis> - channel number
                  </para>
                </listitem>
                <listitem>
                  <para>
                    <emphasis>bouncebufsize</emphasis> - size of the
                    bounce buffer in bytes
                  </para>
                </listitem>
          </itemizedlist>
<!-- </blockquote> -->
<!--</para> -->
        </listitem>

        <listitem>
          <para>
            <function>void isa_dmastart(int flags, caddr_t addr, u_int
            nbytes, int chan)</function>
          </para>
          <para>
                Prepare to start a DMA transfer. This function must be
                called to set up the DMA controller before actually
                starting transfer on the device. It checks that the
                buffer is contiguous and falls into the ISA memory
                range, if not then the bounce buffer is automatically
                used. If bounce buffer is required but not set up by
                <function>isa_dmainit()</function> or too small for
                the requested transfer size then the system will
                panic. In case of a write request with bounce buffer
                the data will be automatically copied to the bounce
                buffer.
          </para>
        </listitem>
        <listitem>
          <para>flags - a bitmask determining the type of operation to
          be done. The direction bits B_READ and B_WRITE are mutually
          exclusive.
          </para>
        <!--   <blockquote>  -->
          <itemizedlist>
            <listitem>
              <para>
                B_READ - read from the ISA bus into memory
              </para>
            </listitem>
            <listitem>
              <para>
                B_WRITE - write from the memory to the ISA bus
              </para>
            </listitem>
            <listitem>
              <para>
                B_RAW - if set then the DMA controller will remember
                the buffer and after the end of transfer will
                automatically re-initialize itself to repeat transfer
                of the same buffer again (of course, the driver may
                change the data in the buffer before initiating
                another transfer in the device). If not set then the
                parameters will work only for one transfer, and
                <function>isa_dmastart()</function> will have to be
                called again before initiating the next
                transfer. Using B_RAW makes sense only if the bounce
                buffer is not used.
              </para>
            </listitem>
          </itemizedlist>
<!--   </blockquote>  -->
        </listitem>
        <listitem>
          <para>
            addr - virtual address of the buffer
          </para>
        </listitem>
        <listitem>
          <para>
            nbytes - length of the buffer. Must be less or equal to
            64KB. Length of 0 is not allowed: the DMA controller will
            understand it as 64KB while the kernel code will
            understand it as 0 and that would cause unpredictable
            effects. For channels number 4 and higher the length must
            be even because these channels transfer 2 bytes at a
            time. In case of an odd length the last byte will not be
            transferred.
          </para>
        </listitem>
        <listitem>
          <para>
            chan - channel number
          </para>
        </listitem>

        <listitem>
          <para>
            <function>void isa_dmadone(int flags, caddr_t addr, int
            nbytes, int chan)</function>
          </para>
          <para>
            Synchronize the memory after device reports that transfer
            is done. If that was a read operation with a bounce buffer
            then the data will be copied from the bounce buffer to the
            original buffer. Arguments are the same as for
            <function>isa_dmastart()</function>. Flag B_RAW is
            permitted but it does not affect
            <function>isa_dmadone()</function> in any way.
          </para>
        </listitem>

        <listitem>
          <para>
            <function>int isa_dmastatus(int channel_number)</function>
          </para>
          <para>
            Returns the number of bytes left in the current transfer
            to be transferred.  In case the flag B_READ was set in
            <function>isa_dmastart()</function> the number returned
            will never be equal to zero. At the end of transfer it
            will be automatically reset back to the length of
            buffer. The normal use is to check the number of bytes
            left after the device signals that the transfer is
            completed.  If the number of bytes is not 0 then something
            probably went wrong with that transfer.
          </para>
        </listitem>

        <listitem>
          <para>
            <function>int isa_dmastop(int channel_number)</function>
          </para>
          <para>
            Aborts the current transfer and returns the number of
            bytes left untransferred.
          </para>
        </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </sect1>

     <sect1 id="isa-driver-probe">
     <title>xxx_isa_probe</title>
     <!-- Section marked up by Wylie -->

        <para>
          This function probes if a device is present. If the driver
          supports auto-detection of some part of device configuration
          (such as interrupt vector or memory address) this
          auto-detection must be done in this routine.
        </para>

        <para>
          As for any other bus, if the device cannot be detected or
          is detected but failed the self-test or some other problem
          happened then it returns a positive value of error. The
          value ENXIO must be returned if the device is not
          present. Other error values may mean other conditions. Zero
          or negative values mean success. Most of the drivers return
          zero as success.
        </para>

        <para>
          The negative return values are used when a PnP device
          supports multiple interfaces. For example, an older
          compatibility interface and a newer advanced interface which
          are supported by different drivers. Then both drivers would
          detect the device. The driver which returns a higher value
          in the probe routine takes precedence (in other words, the
          driver returning 0 has highest precedence, one returning -1
          is next, one returning -2 is after it and so on). In result
          the devices which support only the old interface will be
          handled by the old driver (which should return -1 from the
          probe routine) while the devices supporting the new
          interface as well will be handled by the new driver (which
          should return 0 from the probe routine).
        </para>

        <para>
          The device descriptor struct xxx_softc is allocated by the
          system before calling the probe routine. If the probe
          routine returns an error the descriptor will be
          automatically deallocated by the system. So if a probing
          error occurs the driver must make sure that all the
          resources it used during probe are deallocated and that
          nothing keeps the descriptor from being safely
          deallocated. If the probe completes successfully the
          descriptor will be preserved by the system and later passed
          to the routine <function>xxx_isa_attach()</function>. If a
          driver returns a negative value it can not be sure that it
          will have the highest priority and its attach routine will
          be called. So in this case it also must release all the
          resources before returning and if necessary allocate them
          again in the attach routine. When
          <function>xxx_isa_probe()</function> returns 0 releasing the
          resources before returning is also a good idea and a
          well-behaved driver should do so. But in cases where there is
          some problem with releasing the resources the driver is
          allowed to keep resources between returning 0 from the probe
          routine and execution of the attach routine.
        </para>

        <para>
          A typical probe routine starts with getting the device
          descriptor and unit:
        </para>

        <programlisting>         struct xxx_softc *sc = device_get_softc(dev);
          int unit = device_get_unit(dev);
          int pnperror;
          int error = 0;

          sc->dev = dev; /* link it back */
          sc->unit = unit;        </programlisting>

        <para>
          Then check for the PnP devices. The check is carried out by
          a table containing the list of PnP IDs supported by this
          driver and human-readable descriptions of the device models
          corresponding to these IDs.
        </para>

        <programlisting>
        pnperror=ISA_PNP_PROBE(device_get_parent(dev), dev,
        xxx_pnp_ids); if(pnperror == ENXIO) return ENXIO;
        </programlisting>

        <para>
          The logic of ISA_PNP_PROBE is the following: If this card
          (device unit) was not detected as PnP then ENOENT will be
          returned. If it was detected as PnP but its detected ID does
          not match any of the IDs in the table then ENXIO is
          returned. Finally, if it has PnP support and it matches on
          of the IDs in the table, 0 is returned and the appropriate
          description from the table is set by
          <function>device_set_desc()</function>.
        </para>

        <para>
          If a driver supports only PnP devices then the condition
          would look like:
        </para>

        <programlisting>          if(pnperror != 0)
              return pnperror;        </programlisting>

        <para>
          No special treatment is required for the drivers which do not
          support PnP because they pass an empty PnP ID table and will
          always get ENXIO if called on a PnP card.
        </para>

        <para>
          The probe routine normally needs at least some minimal set
          of resources, such as I/O port number to find the card and
          probe it. Depending on the hardware the driver may be able
          to discover the other necessary resources automatically. The
          PnP devices have all the resources pre-set by the PnP
          subsystem, so the driver does not need to discover them by
          itself.
        </para>

        <para>
          Typically the minimal information required to get access to
          the device is the I/O port number. Then some devices allow
          to get the rest of information from the device configuration
          registers (though not all devices do that).  So first we try
          to get the port start value:
        </para>

        <programlisting> sc->port0 = bus_get_resource_start(dev,
        SYS_RES_IOPORT, 0 /*rid*/); if(sc->port0 == 0) return ENXIO;
        </programlisting>

        <para>
          The base port address is saved in the structure softc for
          future use.  If it will be used very often then calling the
          resource function each time would be prohibitively slow. If
          we do not get a port we just return an error.  Some device
          drivers can instead be clever and try to probe all the
          possible ports, like this:
        </para>

        <programlisting>          
          /* table of all possible base I/O port addresses for this device */
          static struct xxx_allports {
              u_short port; /* port address */
              short used; /* flag: if this port is already used by some unit */
          } xxx_allports = {
              { 0x300, 0 },
              { 0x320, 0 },
              { 0x340, 0 },
              { 0, 0 } /* end of table */
          };

          ...
          int port, i;
          ...

          port =  bus_get_resource_start(dev, SYS_RES_IOPORT, 0 /*rid*/);
          if(port !=0 ) {
              for(i=0; xxx_allports[i].port!=0; i++) {
                  if(xxx_allports[i].used || xxx_allports[i].port != port)
                      continue;

                  /* found it */
                  xxx_allports[i].used = 1;
                  /* do probe on a known port */
                  return xxx_really_probe(dev, port);
              }
              return ENXIO; /* port is unknown or already used */
          }

          /* we get here only if we need to guess the port */
          for(i=0; xxx_allports[i].port!=0; i++) {
              if(xxx_allports[i].used)
                  continue;

              /* mark as used - even if we find nothing at this port
               * at least we won't probe it in future
               */
               xxx_allports[i].used = 1;

              error = xxx_really_probe(dev, xxx_allports[i].port);
              if(error == 0) /* found a device at that port */
                  return 0;
          }
          /* probed all possible addresses, none worked */
          return ENXIO;</programlisting>

        <para>
          Of course, normally the driver's
          <function>identify()</function> routine should be used for
          such things. But there may be one valid reason why it may be
          better to be done in <function>probe()</function>: if this
          probe would drive some other sensitive device crazy.  The
          probe routines are ordered with consideration of the
          <literal>sensitive</literal> flag: the sensitive devices get probed first and
          the rest of the devices later.  But the
          <function>identify()</function> routines are called before
          any probes, so they show no respect to the sensitive devices
          and may upset them.
        </para>

        <para>
          Now, after we got the starting port we need to set the port
          count (except for PnP devices) because the kernel does not
          have this information in the configuration file.
        </para>

        <programlisting>          
         if(pnperror /* only for non-PnP devices */
         &#38;&#38; bus_set_resource(dev, SYS_RES_IOPORT, 0, sc->port0, 
         XXX_PORT_COUNT)&lt;0)
             return ENXIO;</programlisting>

        <para>
          Finally allocate and activate a piece of port address space
          (special values of start and end mean <quote>use those we set by
          <function>bus_set_resource()</function></quote>):
        </para>

        <programlisting>
          sc->port0_rid = 0;
          sc->port0_r = bus_alloc_resource(dev, SYS_RES_IOPORT,  
          &#38;sc->port0_rid,
              /*start*/ 0, /*end*/ ~0, /*count*/ 0, RF_ACTIVE);

          if(sc->port0_r == NULL)
              return ENXIO;</programlisting>

        <para>
          Now having access to the port-mapped registers we can poke
          the device in some way and check if it reacts like it is
          expected to. If it does not then there is probably some
          other device or no device at all at this address.
        </para>

        <para>
          Normally drivers do not set up the interrupt handlers until
          the attach routine. Instead they do probes in the polling
          mode using the <function>DELAY()</function> function for
          timeout. The probe routine must never hang forever, all the
          waits for the device must be done with timeouts. If the
          device does not respond within the time it is probably broken
          or misconfigured and the driver must return error. When
          determining the timeout interval give the device some extra
          time to be on the safe side: although
          <function>DELAY()</function> is supposed to delay for the
          same amount of time on any machine it has some margin of
          error, depending on the exact CPU.
        </para>

        <para>
          If the probe routine really wants to check that the
          interrupts really work it may configure and probe the
          interrupts too. But that is not recommended.
        </para>

        <programlisting>          
          /* implemented in some very device-specific way */
          if(error = xxx_probe_ports(sc))
              goto bad; /* will deallocate the resources before returning */
        </programlisting>

        <para>
          The function <function>xxx_probe_ports()</function> may also
          set the device description depending on the exact model of
          device it discovers.  But if there is only one supported
          device model this can be as well done in a hardcoded way.
          Of course, for the PnP devices the PnP support sets the
          description from the table automatically.
        </para>


        <programlisting>          if(pnperror)
              device_set_desc(dev, "Our device model 1234");
        </programlisting>

        <para>
          Then the probe routine should either discover the ranges of
          all the resources by reading the device configuration
          registers or make sure that they were set explicitly by the
          user. We will consider it with an example of on-board
          memory. The probe routine should be as non-intrusive as
          possible, so allocation and check of functionality of the
          rest of resources (besides the ports) would be better left
          to the attach routine.
        </para>

        <para>
          The memory address may be specified in the kernel
          configuration file or on some devices it may be
          pre-configured in non-volatile configuration registers.  If
          both sources are available and different, which one should
          be used?  Probably if the user bothered to set the address
          explicitly in the kernel configuration file they know what
          they are doing and this one should take precedence. An
          example of implementation could be:
        </para>
        <programlisting>          
          /* try to find out the config address first */
          sc->mem0_p = bus_get_resource_start(dev, SYS_RES_MEMORY, 0 /*rid*/);
          if(sc->mem0_p == 0) { /* nope, not specified by user */
              sc->mem0_p = xxx_read_mem0_from_device_config(sc);


          if(sc->mem0_p == 0)
                  /* can't get it from device config registers either */
                  goto bad;
          } else {
              if(xxx_set_mem0_address_on_device(sc) &lt; 0)
                  goto bad; /* device does not support that address */
          }

          /* just like the port, set the memory size,
           * for some devices the memory size would not be constant
           * but should be read from the device configuration registers instead
           * to accommodate different models of devices. Another option would
           * be to let the user set the memory size as "msize" configuration
           * resource which will be automatically handled by the ISA bus.
           */
           if(pnperror) { /* only for non-PnP devices */
              sc->mem0_size = bus_get_resource_count(dev, SYS_RES_MEMORY, 0 /*rid*/);
              if(sc->mem0_size == 0) /* not specified by user */
                  sc->mem0_size = xxx_read_mem0_size_from_device_config(sc);

              if(sc->mem0_size == 0) {
                  /* suppose this is a very old model of device without
                   * auto-configuration features and the user gave no preference,
                   * so assume the minimalistic case
                   * (of course, the real value will vary with the driver)
                   */
                  sc->mem0_size = 8*1024;
              }

              if(xxx_set_mem0_size_on_device(sc) &lt; 0)
                  goto bad; /* device does not support that size */

              if(bus_set_resource(dev, SYS_RES_MEMORY, /*rid*/0,
                      sc->mem0_p, sc->mem0_size)&lt;0)
                  goto bad;
          } else {
              sc->mem0_size = bus_get_resource_count(dev, SYS_RES_MEMORY, 0 /*rid*/);
          }        </programlisting>

        <para>
          Resources for IRQ and DRQ are easy to check by analogy.
        </para>

        <para>
          If all went well then release all the resources and return success.
        </para>

        <programlisting>          xxx_free_resources(sc);
          return 0;</programlisting>

        <para>
          Finally, handle the troublesome situations. All the
          resources should be deallocated before returning. We make
          use of the fact that before the structure softc is passed to
          us it gets zeroed out, so we can find out if some resource
          was allocated: then its descriptor is non-zero.
        </para>

        <programlisting>          bad:

          xxx_free_resources(sc);
          if(error)
                return error;
          else /* exact error is unknown */
              return ENXIO;</programlisting>

        <para>
          That would be all for the probe routine. Freeing of
          resources is done from multiple places, so it is moved to a
          function which may look like:
        </para>

<programlisting>static void
           xxx_free_resources(sc)
              struct xxx_softc *sc;
          {
              /* check every resource and free if not zero */

              /* interrupt handler */
              if(sc->intr_r) {
                  bus_teardown_intr(sc->dev, sc->intr_r, sc->intr_cookie);
                  bus_release_resource(sc->dev, SYS_RES_IRQ, sc->intr_rid,
                      sc->intr_r);
                  sc->intr_r = 0;
              }

              /* all kinds of memory maps we could have allocated */
              if(sc->data_p) {
                  bus_dmamap_unload(sc->data_tag, sc->data_map);
                  sc->data_p = 0;
              }
               if(sc->data) { /* sc->data_map may be legitimately equal to 0 */
                  /* the map will also be freed */
                  bus_dmamem_free(sc->data_tag, sc->data, sc->data_map);
                  sc->data = 0;
              }
              if(sc->data_tag) {
                  bus_dma_tag_destroy(sc->data_tag);
                  sc->data_tag = 0;
              }

              ... free other maps and tags if we have them ...

              if(sc->parent_tag) {
                  bus_dma_tag_destroy(sc->parent_tag);
                  sc->parent_tag = 0;
              }

              /* release all the bus resources */
              if(sc->mem0_r) {
                  bus_release_resource(sc->dev, SYS_RES_MEMORY, sc->mem0_rid,
                      sc->mem0_r);
                  sc->mem0_r = 0;
              }
              ...
              if(sc->port0_r) {
                  bus_release_resource(sc->dev, SYS_RES_IOPORT, sc->port0_rid,
                      sc->port0_r);
                  sc->port0_r = 0;
              }
          }</programlisting>

     </sect1>

     <sect1 id="isa-driver-attach">
     <title>xxx_isa_attach</title>
     <!-- Section Marked up by Wylie -->

        <para>The attach routine actually connects the driver to the
        system if the probe routine returned success and the system
        had chosen to attach that driver.  If the probe routine
        returned 0 then the attach routine may expect to receive the
        device structure softc intact, as it was set by the probe
        routine. Also if the probe routine returns 0 it may expect
        that the attach routine for this device shall be called at
        some point in the future. If the probe routine returns a
        negative value then the driver may make none of these
        assumptions.
        </para>

        <para>The attach routine returns 0 if it completed successfully or
          error code otherwise.
        </para>

        <para>The attach routine starts just like the probe routine,
          with getting some frequently used data into more accessible
          variables.
        </para>

        <programlisting>          struct xxx_softc *sc = device_get_softc(dev);
          int unit = device_get_unit(dev);
          int error = 0;</programlisting>

        <para>Then allocate and activate all the necessary
          resources. Because normally the port range will be released
          before returning from probe, it has to be allocated
          again. We expect that the probe routine had properly set all
          the resource ranges, as well as saved them in the structure
          softc. If the probe routine had left some resource allocated
          then it does not need to be allocated again (which would be
          considered an error).
        </para>

        <programlisting>          sc->port0_rid = 0;
          sc->port0_r = bus_alloc_resource(dev, SYS_RES_IOPORT,  &#38;sc->port0_rid,
              /*start*/ 0, /*end*/ ~0, /*count*/ 0, RF_ACTIVE);

          if(sc->port0_r == NULL)
               return ENXIO;

          /* on-board memory */
          sc->mem0_rid = 0;
          sc->mem0_r = bus_alloc_resource(dev, SYS_RES_MEMORY,  &#38;sc->mem0_rid,
              /*start*/ 0, /*end*/ ~0, /*count*/ 0, RF_ACTIVE);

          if(sc->mem0_r == NULL)
                goto bad;

          /* get its virtual address */
          sc->mem0_v = rman_get_virtual(sc->mem0_r);</programlisting>

        <para>The DMA request channel (DRQ) is allocated likewise. To
          initialize it use functions of the
          <function>isa_dma*()</function> family. For example:
        </para>

        <para><function>isa_dmacascade(sc->drq0);</function></para>

        <para>The interrupt request line (IRQ) is a bit
          special. Besides allocation the driver's interrupt handler
          should be associated with it. Historically in the old ISA
          drivers the argument passed by the system to the interrupt
          handler was the device unit number. But in modern drivers
          the convention suggests passing the pointer to structure
          softc. The important reason is that when the structures
          softc are allocated dynamically then getting the unit number
          from softc is easy while getting softc from the unit number is
          difficult. Also this convention makes the drivers for
          different buses look more uniform and allows them to share
          the code: each bus gets its own probe, attach, detach and
          other bus-specific routines while the bulk of the driver
          code may be shared among them.
        </para>

        <programlisting>
          sc->intr_rid = 0;
          sc->intr_r = bus_alloc_resource(dev, SYS_RES_MEMORY,  &#38;sc->intr_rid,
                /*start*/ 0, /*end*/ ~0, /*count*/ 0, RF_ACTIVE);

          if(sc->intr_r == NULL)
              goto bad;

          /*
           * XXX_INTR_TYPE is supposed to be defined depending on the type of
           * the driver, for example as INTR_TYPE_CAM for a CAM driver
           */
          error = bus_setup_intr(dev, sc->intr_r, XXX_INTR_TYPE,
              (driver_intr_t *) xxx_intr, (void *) sc, &#38;sc->intr_cookie);
          if(error)
              goto bad;

        </programlisting>


        <para>If the device needs to make DMA to the main memory then
          this memory should be allocated like described before:
        </para>

        <programlisting>          error=bus_dma_tag_create(NULL, /*alignment*/ 4,
              /*boundary*/ 0, /*lowaddr*/ BUS_SPACE_MAXADDR_24BIT,
              /*highaddr*/ BUS_SPACE_MAXADDR, /*filter*/ NULL, /*filterarg*/ NULL,
              /*maxsize*/ BUS_SPACE_MAXSIZE_24BIT,
              /*nsegments*/ BUS_SPACE_UNRESTRICTED,
              /*maxsegsz*/ BUS_SPACE_MAXSIZE_24BIT, /*flags*/ 0,
              &#38;sc->parent_tag);
          if(error)
              goto bad;

          /* many things get inherited from the parent tag
           * sc->data is supposed to point to the structure with the shared data,
           * for example for a ring buffer it could be:
           * struct {
           *   u_short rd_pos;
           *   u_short wr_pos;
           *   char    bf[XXX_RING_BUFFER_SIZE]
           * } *data;
           */
          error=bus_dma_tag_create(sc->parent_tag, 1,
              0, BUS_SPACE_MAXADDR, 0, /*filter*/ NULL, /*filterarg*/ NULL,
              /*maxsize*/ sizeof(* sc->data), /*nsegments*/ 1,
              /*maxsegsz*/ sizeof(* sc->data), /*flags*/ 0,
              &#38;sc->data_tag);
          if(error)
              goto bad;

          error = bus_dmamem_alloc(sc->data_tag, &#38;sc->data, /* flags*/ 0,
              &#38;sc->data_map);
          if(error)
               goto bad;

          /* xxx_alloc_callback() just saves the physical address at
           * the pointer passed as its argument, in this case &#38;sc->data_p.
           * See details in the section on bus memory mapping.
           * It can be implemented like:
           *
           * static void
           * xxx_alloc_callback(void *arg, bus_dma_segment_t *seg,
           *     int nseg, int error)
           * {
           *    *(bus_addr_t *)arg = seg[0].ds_addr;
           * }
           */
          bus_dmamap_load(sc->data_tag, sc->data_map, (void *)sc->data,
              sizeof (* sc->data), xxx_alloc_callback, (void *) &#38;sc->data_p,
              /*flags*/0);</programlisting>


        <para>After all the necessary resources are allocated the
          device should be initialized. The initialization may include
          testing that all the expected features are functional.</para>

        <programlisting>          if(xxx_initialize(sc) &lt; 0)
               goto bad;        </programlisting>


        <para>The bus subsystem will automatically print on the
          console the device description set by probe. But if the
          driver wants to print some extra information about the
          device it may do so, for example:</para>

        <programlisting>
        device_printf(dev, "has on-card FIFO buffer of %d bytes\n", sc->fifosize);
        </programlisting>

        <para>If the initialization routine experiences any problems
          then printing messages about them before returning error is
          also recommended.</para>

        <para>The final step of the attach routine is attaching the
          device to its functional subsystem in the kernel. The exact
          way to do it depends on the type of the driver: a character
          device, a block device, a network device, a CAM SCSI bus
          device and so on.</para>

        <para>If all went well then return success.</para>

        <programlisting>          error = xxx_attach_subsystem(sc);
          if(error)
              goto bad;

          return 0;        </programlisting>

        <para>Finally, handle the troublesome situations. All the
          resources should be deallocated before returning an
          error. We make use of the fact that before the structure
          softc is passed to us it gets zeroed out, so we can find out
          if some resource was allocated: then its descriptor is
          non-zero.</para>

        <programlisting>          bad:

          xxx_free_resources(sc);
          if(error)
              return error;
          else /* exact error is unknown */
              return ENXIO;</programlisting>

        <para>That would be all for the attach routine.</para>

     </sect1>


     <sect1 id="isa-driver-detach">
       <title>xxx_isa_detach</title>

        <para>
          If this function is present in the driver and the driver is
          compiled as a loadable module then the driver gets the
          ability to be unloaded. This is an important feature if the
          hardware supports hot plug. But the ISA bus does not support
          hot plug, so this feature is not particularly important for
          the ISA devices. The ability to unload a driver may be
          useful when debugging it, but in many cases installation of
          the new version of the driver would be required only after
          the old version somehow wedges the system and a reboot will be
          needed anyway, so the efforts spent on writing the detach
          routine may not be worth it. Another argument that
          unloading would allow upgrading the drivers on a production
          machine seems to be mostly theoretical. Installing a new
          version of a driver is a dangerous operation which should
          never be performed on a production machine (and which is not
          permitted when the system is running in secure mode).  Still,
          the detach routine may be provided for the sake of
          completeness.
        </para>

        <para>
          The detach routine returns 0 if the driver was successfully
          detached or the error code otherwise.
        </para>

        <para>
          The logic of detach is a mirror of the attach. The first
          thing to do is to detach the driver from its kernel
          subsystem. If the device is currently open then the driver
          has two choices: refuse to be detached or forcibly close and
          proceed with detach. The choice used depends on the ability
          of the particular kernel subsystem to do a forced close and
          on the preferences of the driver's author. Generally the
          forced close seems to be the preferred alternative.
        <programlisting>          struct xxx_softc *sc = device_get_softc(dev);
          int error;

          error = xxx_detach_subsystem(sc);
          if(error)
              return error;</programlisting>
        </para>
        <para>
          Next the driver may want to reset the hardware to some
          consistent state.  That includes stopping any ongoing
          transfers, disabling the DMA channels and interrupts to
          avoid memory corruption by the device. For most of the
          drivers this is exactly what the shutdown routine does, so
          if it is included in the driver we can just call it.
        </para>
        <para><function>xxx_isa_shutdown(dev);</function></para>

        <para>
          And finally release all the resources and return success.
        <programlisting>          xxx_free_resources(sc);
          return 0;</programlisting>

        </para>
     </sect1>

     <sect1 id="isa-driver-shutdown">
       <title>xxx_isa_shutdown</title>

        <para>
          This routine is called when the system is about to be shut
          down. It is expected to bring the hardware to some
          consistent state. For most of the ISA devices no special
          action is required, so the function is not really necessary
          because the device will be re-initialized on reboot
          anyway. But some devices have to be shut down with a special
          procedure, to make sure that they will be properly detected
          after soft reboot (this is especially true for many devices
          with proprietary identification protocols).  In any case
          disabling DMA and interrupts in the device registers and
          stopping any ongoing transfers is a good idea. The exact
          action depends on the hardware, so we do not consider it here
          in any detail.
        </para>
     </sect1>

     <sect1 id="isa-driver-intr">
          <title>xxx_intr</title>

        <para>
          The interrupt handler is called when an interrupt is
          received which may be from this particular device. The ISA
          bus does not support interrupt sharing (except in some special
          cases) so in practice if the interrupt handler is called
          then the interrupt almost for sure came from its
          device. Still, the interrupt handler must poll the device
          registers and make sure that the interrupt was generated by
          its device. If not it should just return.
        </para>

        <para>
          The old convention for the ISA drivers was getting the
          device unit number as an argument. This is obsolete, and the
          new drivers receive whatever argument was specified for them
          in the attach routine when calling
          <function>bus_setup_intr()</function>. By the new convention
          it should be the pointer to the structure softc. So the
          interrupt handler commonly starts as:
        </para>

        <programlisting>
          static void
          xxx_intr(struct xxx_softc *sc)
          {

        </programlisting>

        <para>
          It runs at the interrupt priority level specified by the
          interrupt type parameter of
          <function>bus_setup_intr()</function>. That means that all
          the other interrupts of the same type as well as all the
          software interrupts are disabled.
        </para>

        <para>
          To avoid races it is commonly written as a loop:
        </para>

        <programlisting>
          while(xxx_interrupt_pending(sc)) {
              xxx_process_interrupt(sc);
              xxx_acknowledge_interrupt(sc);
          }        </programlisting>

        <para>
          The interrupt handler has to acknowledge interrupt to the
          device only but not to the interrupt controller, the system
          takes care of the latter.
        </para>

     </sect1>
</chapter>
