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<chapter id="firewalls">
  <chapterinfo>
    <authorgroup>
      <author>
	<firstname>Joseph J.</firstname>
	<surname>Barbish</surname>
	<contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
      </author>
    </authorgroup>
    <authorgroup>
      <author>
	<firstname>Brad</firstname>
	<surname>Davis</surname>
	<contrib>Converted to SGML and updated by </contrib>
      </author>
    </authorgroup>
  </chapterinfo>

  <title>Firewalls</title>

  <indexterm><primary>firewall</primary></indexterm>

  <indexterm>
    <primary>security</primary>

    <secondary>firewalls</secondary>
  </indexterm>

  <sect1 id="firewalls-intro">
    <title>Introduction</title>

    <para>Firewalls make it possible to filter
      incoming and outgoing traffic that flows through your system.
      A firewall can use one or more sets of <quote>rules</quote> to
      inspect the network packets as they come in or go out of your
      network connections and either allows the traffic through or
      blocks it.  The rules of a firewall can inspect one or more
      characteristics of the packets, including but not limited to the
      protocol type, the source or destination host address, and the
      source or destination port.</para>

    <para>Firewalls can greatly enhance the security of a host or a
      network.  They can be used to do one or more of
      the following things:</para>

    <itemizedlist>
      <listitem>
	<para>To protect and insulate the applications, services and
	  machines of your internal network from unwanted traffic
	  coming in from the public Internet.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
	<para>To limit or disable access from hosts of the internal
	  network to services of the public Internet.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
	<para>To support network address translation
	  (<acronym>NAT</acronym>), which allows your internal network
	  to use private <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses and share a
	  single connection to the public Internet (either with a
	  single <acronym>IP</acronym> address or by a shared pool of
	  automatically assigned public addresses).</para>
      </listitem>
    </itemizedlist>

    <para>After reading this chapter, you will know:</para>

    <itemizedlist>
      <listitem>
	<para>How to properly define packet filtering rules.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
	<para>The differences between the firewalls
	  built into &os;.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
	<para>How to use and configure the OpenBSD
	  <application>PF</application> firewall.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
	<para>How to use and configure
	  <application>IPFILTER</application>.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
	<para>How to use and configure
	  <application>IPFW</application>.</para>
      </listitem>
    </itemizedlist>

    <para>Before reading this chapter, you should:</para>

    <itemizedlist>
      <listitem>
	<para>Understand basic &os; and Internet concepts.</para>
      </listitem>
    </itemizedlist>
  </sect1>

  <sect1 id="firewalls-concepts">
    <title>Firewall Concepts</title>

    <indexterm>
      <primary>firewall</primary>

      <secondary>rulesets</secondary>
    </indexterm>

    <para>There are two basic ways to create firewall rulesets:
      <quote>inclusive</quote> or <quote>exclusive</quote>.  An
      exclusive firewall allows all traffic through except for the
      traffic matching the ruleset.  An inclusive firewall does the
      reverse.  It only allows traffic matching the rules through and
      blocks everything else.</para>

    <para>Inclusive firewalls are generally safer than exclusive
      firewalls because they significantly reduce the risk of allowing
      unwanted traffic to pass through the firewall.</para>

    <para>Security can be tightened further using a <quote>stateful
	firewall</quote>.  With a stateful firewall the firewall keeps
      track of which connections are opened through the firewall and
      will only allow traffic through which either matches an existing
      connection or opens a new one.  The disadvantage of a stateful
      firewall is that it can be vulnerable to Denial of Service
      (<acronym>DoS</acronym>) attacks if a lot of new connections are
      opened very fast.  With most firewalls it is possible to use a
      combination of stateful and non-stateful behavior to make an
      optimal firewall for the site.</para>
  </sect1>

  <sect1 id="firewalls-apps">
    <title>Firewall Packages</title>

    <para>&os; has three different firewall packages built
      into the base system.  They are: <emphasis>IPFILTER</emphasis>
      (also known as <acronym>IPF</acronym>),
      <emphasis>IPFIREWALL</emphasis> (also known as <acronym>IPFW</acronym>),
      and <emphasis>OpenBSD's PacketFilter</emphasis> (also known as
      <acronym>PF</acronym>).  &os; also has two built in packages for
      traffic shaping (basically controlling bandwidth usage):
      &man.altq.4; and &man.dummynet.4;.  Dummynet has traditionally been
      closely tied with <acronym>IPFW</acronym>, and
      <acronym>ALTQ</acronym> with
      <acronym>IPF</acronym>/<acronym>PF</acronym>.  IPF,
      IPFW, and PF all use rules to control the access of packets to and
      from your system, although they go about it different ways and
      have different rule syntaxes.</para>

    <para>The reason that &os; has multiple build in firewall packages
      is that different people have different requirements and
      preferences.  No single firewall package is the best.</para>

    <para>The author prefers IPFILTER because its stateful rules are
      much less complicated to use in a <acronym>NAT</acronym>
      environment and it has a built in ftp proxy that simplifies the
      rules to allow secure outbound FTP usage.</para>

    <para>Since all firewalls are based on inspecting the values of
      selected packet control fields, the creator of the firewall
      rulesets must have an understanding of how
      <acronym>TCP</acronym>/IP works, what the different values in
      the packet control fields are and how these values are used in a
      normal session conversation.  For a good explanation go to:
      <ulink
	url="http://www.ipprimer.com/overview.cfm"></ulink>.</para>
  </sect1>

  <sect1 id="firewalls-pf">
    <title>The OpenBSD Packet Filter (PF) and
      <acronym>ALTQ</acronym></title>

    <indexterm>
      <primary>firewall</primary>

      <secondary>PF</secondary>
    </indexterm>

    <para>As of July 2003 the OpenBSD firewall software application
      known as <acronym>PF</acronym> was ported to &os; and was made
      available in the &os; Ports Collection; the first release that
      contained <acronym>PF</acronym> as an integrated part of the
      base system was &os;&nbsp;5.3 in November 2004.
      <acronym>PF</acronym> is a complete, fully featured firewall
      that has optional support for <acronym>ALTQ</acronym> (Alternate
      Queuing).  <acronym>ALTQ</acronym> provides Quality of Service
      (<acronym>QoS</acronym>) bandwidth shaping that allows
      guaranteeing bandwidth to different services based on filtering
      rules.  The OpenBSD Project does an outstanding job of
      maintaining the PF User's Guide that it will not be made part of
      this handbook firewall section as that would just be duplicated
      effort.</para>

    <para>The availability of PF for the various &os; releases and
      versions is summarized below:</para>

    <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
      <tgroup cols="2">
	<thead>
	  <row>
	    <entry>&os; Version</entry>

	    <entry>PF Availability</entry>
	  </row>
	</thead>

	<tbody>
	  <row>
	    <entry>Pre-4.X versions</entry>

	    <entry>PF is not available for any release of &os; older
	      than the 4.X branch.</entry>
	  </row>

	  <row>
	    <entry>All versions of the 4.X branch</entry>

	    <entry>PF is available as part of KAME.</entry>
	  </row>

	  <row>
	    <entry>5.X releases before 5.3-RELEASE</entry>

	    <entry>The <filename role="package">security/pf</filename>
	      port can be used to install PF on these versions of &os;.
	      These releases were targeted to developers and people who
	      wanted a preview of early 5.X versions.  Upgrading to
	      5.3-RELEASE or newer versions of &os; is strongly
	      recommended.</entry>
	  </row>

	  <row>
	    <entry>5.3-RELEASE and later versions</entry>

	    <entry>PF is part of the base system.  Do
	      <emphasis>not</emphasis> use the <filename
		role="package">security/pf</filename> port on these
	      versions of &os;.  It will not work.  Use the &man.pf.4;
	      support of the base system instead.</entry>
	  </row>
	</tbody>
      </tgroup>
    </informaltable>

    <para>More info can be found at the PF for &os; web site: <ulink
	url="http://pf4freebsd.love2party.net/"></ulink>.</para>

    <para>The OpenBSD PF user's guide is here: <ulink
	url="http://www.openbsd.org/faq/pf/"></ulink>.</para>

    <warning>
      <para>PF in &os; 5.X is at the level of OpenBSD version 3.5.  The
	port from the &os; Ports Collection is at the level of OpenBSD
	version 3.4.  Keep that in mind when browsing the user's
	guide.</para>
    </warning>

    <sect2>
      <title>Enabling PF</title>

      <para>PF is included in the basic &os; install for versions newer
	than 5.3 as a separate run time loadable module.  The system
	will dynamically load the PF kernel loadable module when the
	rc.conf statement <literal>pf_enable="YES"</literal> is used.
	The loadable module was created with &man.pflog.4; logging
	enabled.</para>

      <note>
	<para>The module assumes the presence of <literal>options
	    INET</literal> and <literal>device bpf</literal>.  Unless
	  <literal>NOINET6</literal> (for example in &man.make.conf.5;)
	  was defined during the build, it also requires <literal>options
	    INET6</literal>.</para>
      </note>
    </sect2>

    <sect2>
      <title>Kernel options</title>

      <indexterm>
	<primary>kernel options</primary>

	<secondary>device pf</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <indexterm>
	<primary>kernel options</primary>

	<secondary>device pflog</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <indexterm>
	<primary>kernel options</primary>

	<secondary>device pfsync</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <para>It is not a mandatory requirement that you enable PF by
	compiling the following options into the &os; kernel.  It is
	only presented here as background information.  Compiling PF
	into the kernel causes the loadable module to never be
	used.</para>

      <para>Sample kernel config PF option statements are in the
	<filename>/usr/src/sys/conf/NOTES</filename> kernel source and
	are reproduced here:</para>

      <programlisting>device pf
device pflog
device pfsync</programlisting>

      <para><literal>device pf</literal> enables support for the
	<quote>Packet Filter</quote> firewall.</para>

      <para><literal>device pflog</literal> enables the optional
	&man.pflog.4; pseudo network device which can be used to log
	traffic to a &man.bpf.4; descriptor.  The &man.pflogd.8; daemon
	can be used to store the logging information to disk.</para>

      <para><literal>device pfsync</literal> enables the optional
	&man.pfsync.4; pseudo network device that is used to monitor
	<quote>state changes</quote>.  As this is not part of the
	loadable module one has to build a custom kernel to use
	it.</para>

      <para>These settings will take effect only after you have built
	and installed a kernel with them set.</para>
    </sect2>

    <sect2>
      <title>Available rc.conf Options</title>

      <para>You need the following statements in
	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> to activate PF at boot
	time:</para>

      <programlisting>pf_enable="YES"                 # Enable PF (load module if required)
pf_rules="/etc/pf.conf"         # rules definition file for pf
pf_flags=""                     # additional flags for pfctl startup
pflog_enable="YES"              # start pflogd(8)
pflog_logfile="/var/log/pflog"  # where pflogd should store the logfile
pflog_flags=""                  # additional flags for pflogd startup</programlisting>

      <para>If you have a LAN behind this firewall and have to forward
	packets for the computers in the LAN or want to do NAT, you
	have to enable the following option as well:</para>

      <programlisting>gateway_enable="YES"            # Enable as LAN gateway</programlisting>
    </sect2>

    <sect2>
      <title>Enabling <acronym>ALTQ</acronym></title>

      <para><acronym>ALTQ</acronym> is only available by compiling the
	options into the &os; Kernel.  <acronym>ALTQ</acronym> is not
	supported by all of the available network card drivers.	 Please
	see the &man.altq.4; manual page for a list of drivers that are
	supported in your release of &os;.  The following options will
	enable <acronym>ALTQ</acronym> and add additional
	functionality.</para>

      <programlisting>options         ALTQ
options         ALTQ_CBQ        # Class Bases Queuing (CBQ)
options         ALTQ_RED        # Random Early Detection (RED)
options         ALTQ_RIO        # RED In/Out
options         ALTQ_HFSC       # Hierarchical Packet Scheduler (HFSC)
options         ALTQ_PRIQ       # Priority Queuing (PRIQ)
options         ALTQ_NOPCC      # Required for SMP build</programlisting>

      <para><literal>options ALTQ</literal> enables the
	<acronym>ALTQ</acronym> framework.</para>

      <para><literal>options ALTQ_CBQ</literal> enables Class Based
	Queuing (<acronym>CBQ</acronym>).  <acronym>CBQ</acronym>
	allows you to divide a connection's bandwidth into different
	classes or queues to prioritize traffic based on filter
	rules.</para>

      <para><literal>options ALTQ_RED</literal> enables Random Early
	Detection (<acronym>RED</acronym>).  <acronym>RED</acronym> is
	used to avoid network congestion.  <acronym>RED</acronym> does
	this by measuring the length of the queue and comparing it to
	the minimum and maximum thresholds for the queue.  If the
	queue is over the maximum all new packets will be dropped.
	True to its name, <acronym>RED</acronym> drops packets from
	different connections randomly.</para>

      <para><literal>options ALTQ_RIO</literal> enables Random Early
	Detection In and Out.</para>

      <para><literal>options ALTQ_HFSC</literal> enables the
	Hierarchical Fair Service Curve Packet Scheduler.  For more
	information about <acronym>HFSC</acronym> see: <ulink
	  url="http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~hzhang/HFSC/main.html"></ulink>.</para>

      <para><literal>options ALTQ_PRIQ</literal> enables Priority
	Queuing (<acronym>PRIQ</acronym>).  <acronym>PRIQ</acronym>
	will always pass traffic that is in a higher queue
	first.</para>

      <para><literal>options ALTQ_NOPCC</literal> enables
	<acronym>SMP</acronym> support for <acronym>ALTQ</acronym>.
	This option is required on <acronym>SMP</acronym>
	systems.</para>
    </sect2>
  </sect1>

  <sect1 id="firewalls-ipf">
    <title>The IPFILTER (IPF) Firewall</title>

    <indexterm>
      <primary>firewall</primary>

      <secondary>IPFILTER</secondary>
    </indexterm>

    <note>
      <para>This section is work in progress.  The contents might
	not be accurate at all times.</para>
    </note>

    <para>The author of IPFILTER is Darren Reed.  IPFILTER is not
      operating system dependent: it is an open source application and
      has been ported to &os;, NetBSD, OpenBSD, &sunos;, HP/UX, and
      &solaris; operating systems.  IPFILTER is actively being
      supported and maintained, with updated versions being released
      regularly.</para>

    <para>IPFILTER is based on a kernel-side firewall and
      <acronym>NAT</acronym> mechanism that can be controlled and
      monitored by userland interface programs.  The firewall rules can
      be set or deleted with the &man.ipf.8; utility.  The
      <acronym>NAT</acronym> rules can be set or deleted with the
      &man.ipnat.1; utility.  The &man.ipfstat.8; utility can print
      run-time statistics for the kernel parts of IPFILTER.  The
      &man.ipmon.8; program can log IPFILTER actions to the system log
      files.</para>

    <para>IPF was originally written using a rule processing logic of
      <quote>the last matching rule wins</quote> and used only
      stateless type of rules.  Over time IPF has been enhanced to
      include a <quote>quick</quote> option and a stateful <quote>keep
	state</quote> option which drastically modernized the rules
      processing logic.  IPF's official documentation covers the legacy
      rule coding parameters and the legacy rule file processing
      logic.  The modernized functions are only included as additional
      options, completely understating their benefits in producing a
      far superior secure firewall.</para>

    <para>The instructions contained in this section are based on
      using rules that contain the <quote>quick</quote> option and the
      stateful <quote>keep state</quote> option.  This is the basic
      framework for coding an inclusive firewall rule set.</para>

    <!-- XXX: something like this already in
	 <xref linkend="firewalls-concepts">
	 AND: the para below is repeated 3 times in this chapter-->

    <para>An inclusive firewall only allows packets matching the rules
      to pass through.  This way you can control what services can
      originate behind the firewall destined for the public Internet
      and also control the services which can originate from the
      public Internet accessing your private network.  Everything else
      is blocked and logged by default design.  Inclusive firewalls are
      much, much more secure than exclusive firewall rule sets and is
      the only rule set type covered herein.</para>

    <para>For detailed explanation of the legacy rules processing
      method see: <ulink
	url="http://www.obfuscation.org/ipf/ipf-howto.html#TOC_1"></ulink>
      and <ulink
	url="http://coombs.anu.edu.au/~avalon/ip-filter.html"></ulink>.</para>

    <para>The IPF FAQ is at <ulink
	url="http://www.phildev.net/ipf/index.html"></ulink>.</para>

    <sect2>
      <title>Enabling IPF</title>

      <indexterm>
	<primary>IPFILTER</primary>

	<secondary>enabling</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <para>IPF is included in the basic &os; install as a separate run
	time loadable module.  The system will dynamically load the IPF
	kernel loadable module when the rc.conf statement
	<literal>ipfilter_enable="YES"</literal> is used.  The loadable
	module was created with logging enabled and the
	<literal>default pass all</literal> options.  You do not need
	to compile IPF into the &os; kernel just to change the default
	to <literal>block all</literal>, you can do that by just coding
	a block all rule at the end of your rule set.</para>
    </sect2>

    <sect2>
      <title>Kernel options</title>

      <indexterm>
	<primary>kernel options</primary>

	<secondary>IPFILTER</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <indexterm>
	<primary>kernel options</primary>

	<secondary>IPFILTER_LOG</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <indexterm>
	<primary>kernel options</primary>

	<secondary>IPFILTER_DEFAULT_BLOCK</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <indexterm>
	<primary>IPFILTER</primary>

	<secondary>kernel options</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <para>It is not a mandatory requirement that you enable IPF by
	compiling the following options into the &os; kernel.  It is
	only presented here as background information.  Compiling IPF
	into the kernel causes the loadable module to never be
	used.</para>

      <para>Sample kernel config IPF option statements are in the
	<filename>/usr/src/sys/conf/NOTES</filename> kernel source
	(<filename>/usr/src/sys/<replaceable>arch</replaceable>/conf/LINT</filename>
	for &os;&nbsp;4.X) and are reproduced here:</para>

      <programlisting>options IPFILTER
options IPFILTER_LOG
options IPFILTER_DEFAULT_BLOCK</programlisting>

      <para><literal>options IPFILTER</literal> enables support for the
	<quote>IPFILTER</quote> firewall.</para>

      <para><literal>options IPFILTER_LOG</literal> enables the option
	to have IPF log traffic by writing to the
	<devicename>ipl</devicename> packet logging pseudo&mdash;device
	for every rule that has the <literal>log</literal>
	keyword.</para>

      <para><literal>options IPFILTER_DEFAULT_BLOCK</literal> changes
	the default behavior so any packet not matching a firewall
	<literal>pass</literal> rule gets blocked.</para>

      <para>These settings will take effect only after you have built
	and installed a kernel with them set.</para>
    </sect2>

    <sect2>
      <title>Available rc.conf Options</title>

      <para>You need the following statements in
	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> to activate IPF at boot
	time:</para>

      <programlisting>ipfilter_enable="YES"             # Start ipf firewall
ipfilter_rules="/etc/ipf.rules"   # loads rules definition text file
ipmon_enable="YES"                # Start IP monitor log
ipmon_flags="-Ds"                 # D = start as daemon
                                  # s = log to syslog
                                  # v = log tcp window, ack, seq
                                  # n = map IP & port to names</programlisting>

      <para>If you have a LAN behind this firewall that uses the
	reserved private IP address ranges, then you need to add the
	following to enable <acronym>NAT</acronym>
	functionality:</para>

      <programlisting>gateway_enable="YES"              # Enable as LAN gateway
ipnat_enable="YES"                # Start ipnat function
ipnat_rules="/etc/ipnat.rules"    # rules definition file for ipnat</programlisting>
    </sect2>

    <sect2>
      <title>IPF</title>

      <indexterm><primary><command>ipf</command></primary></indexterm>

      <para>The ipf command is used to load your rules file.  Normally
	you create a file containing your custom rules and use this
	command to replace in mass the currently running firewall
	internal rules:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>ipf -Fa -f /etc/ipf.rules</userinput></screen>

      <para><option>-Fa</option> means flush all internal rules
	tables.</para>

      <para><option>-f</option> means this is the file to read for the
	rules to load.</para>

      <para>This gives you the ability to make changes to your custom
	rules file, run the above IPF command, and thus update the
	running firewall with a fresh copy of all the rules without
	having to reboot the system.  This method is very convenient
	for testing new rules as the procedure can be executed as many
	times as needed.</para>

      <para>See the &man.ipf.8; manual page for details on the other
	flags available with this command.</para>

      <para>The &man.ipf.8; command expects the rules file to be a
	standard text file.  It will not accept a rules file written as
	a script with symbolic substitution.</para>

      <para>There is a way to build IPF rules that utilizes the power
	of script symbolic substitution.  For more information, see
	<xref linkend="firewalls-ipf-rules-script">.</para>
    </sect2>

    <sect2>
      <title>IPFSTAT</title>

      <indexterm><primary><command>ipfstat</command></primary></indexterm>

      <indexterm>
	<primary>IPFILTER</primary>

	<secondary>statistics</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <para>The default behavior of &man.ipfstat.8; is to retrieve and
	display the totals of the accumulated statistics gathered as a
	result of applying the user coded rules against packets going
	in and out of the firewall since it was last started, or since
	the last time the accumulators were reset to zero by the
	<command>ipf -Z</command> command.</para>

      <para>See the &man.ipfstat.8; manual page for details.</para>

      <para>The default &man.ipfstat.8; command output will look
	something like this:</para>

      <screen>input packets: blocked 99286 passed 1255609 nomatch 14686 counted 0
 output packets: blocked 4200 passed 1284345 nomatch 14687 counted 0
 input packets logged: blocked 99286 passed 0
 output packets logged: blocked 0 passed 0
 packets logged: input 0 output 0
 log failures: input 3898 output 0
 fragment state(in): kept 0 lost 0
 fragment state(out): kept 0 lost 0
 packet state(in): kept 169364 lost 0
 packet state(out): kept 431395 lost 0
 ICMP replies: 0 <acronym>TCP</acronym> RSTs sent: 0
 Result cache hits(in): 1215208 (out): 1098963
 IN Pullups succeeded: 2 failed: 0
 OUT Pullups succeeded: 0 failed: 0
 Fastroute successes: 0 failures: 0
 <acronym>TCP</acronym> cksum fails(in): 0 (out): 0
 Packet log flags set: (0)</screen>

      <para>When supplied with either <option>-i</option> for inbound
	or <option>-o</option> for outbound, it will retrieve and
	display the appropriate list of filter rules currently
	installed and in use by the kernel.</para>

      <para><command>ipfstat -in</command> displays the inbound
	internal rules table with rule number.</para>

      <para><command>ipfstat -on</command> displays the outbound
	internal rules table with the rule number.</para>

      <para>The output will look something like this:</para>

      <screen>@1 pass out on xl0 from any to any
@2 block out on dc0 from any to any
@3 pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp/udp from any to any keep state</screen>

      <para><command>ipfstat -ih</command> displays the inbound
	internal rules table, prefixing each rule with a count of how
	many times the rule was matched.</para>

      <para><command>ipfstat -oh</command> displays the outbound
	internal rules table, prefixing each rule with a count of how
	many times the rule was matched.</para>

      <para>The output will look something like this:</para>

      <screen>2451423 pass out on xl0 from any to any
354727 block out on dc0 from any to any
430918 pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp/udp from any to any keep state</screen>

      <para>One of the most important functions of the
	<command>ipfstat</command> command is the <option>-t</option>
	flag which displays the state table in a way similar to the way
	&man.top.1; shows the &os; running process table.  When your
	firewall is under attack this function gives you the ability to
	identify, drill down to, and see the attacking packets.  The
	optional sub-flags give the ability to select the destination
	or source IP, port, or protocol that you want to monitor in
	real time.  See the &man.ipfstat.8; manual page for
	details.</para>
    </sect2>

    <sect2>
      <title>IPMON</title>

      <indexterm><primary><command>ipmon</command></primary></indexterm>

      <indexterm>
	<primary>IPFILTER</primary>

	<secondary>logging</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <para>In order for <command>ipmon</command> to work properly, the
	kernel option IPFILTER_LOG must be turned on.  This command has
	two different modes that it can be used in.  Native mode is the
	default mode when you type the command on the command line
	without the <option>-D</option> flag.</para>

      <para>Daemon mode is for when you want to have a continuous
	system log file available so that you can review logging of
	past events.  This is how &os; and IPFILTER are configured to
	work together. &os; has a built in facility to automatically
	rotate system logs.  That is why outputting the log information
	to syslogd is better than the default of outputting to a
	regular file.  In the default <filename>rc.conf</filename> file
	you see the ipmon_flags statement uses the <option>-Ds</option>
	flags:</para>

      <programlisting>ipmon_flags="-Ds" # D = start as daemon
                  # s = log to syslog
                  # v = log tcp window, ack, seq
                  # n = map IP & port to names</programlisting>

      <para>The benefits of logging are obvious.  It provides the
	ability to review, after the fact, information such as which
	packets had been dropped, what addresses they came from and
	where they were going.  These all give you a significant edge
	in tracking down attackers.</para>

      <para>Even with the logging facility enabled, IPF will not
	generate any rule logging on its own.  The firewall
	administrator decides what rules in the rule set he wants to
	log and adds the log keyword to those rules.  Normally only
	deny rules are logged.</para>

      <para>It is very customary to include a default deny everything
	rule with the log keyword included as your last rule in the
	rule set.  This way you get to see all the packets that did not
	match any of the rules in the rule set.</para>
    </sect2>

    <sect2>
      <title>IPMON Logging</title>

      <para><application>Syslogd</application> uses its own special
	method for segregation of log data.  It uses special groupings
	called <quote>facility</quote> and <quote>level</quote>.  IPMON
	in <option>-Ds</option> mode uses <literal>security</literal>
	(<literal>local0</literal> in 4.X) as the <quote>facility</quote>
	name.  All IPMON logged data goes to <literal>security</literal>
	(<literal>local0</literal> in 4.X).  The following levels can be
	used to further segregate the logged data if desired:</para>

      <screen>LOG_INFO - packets logged using the "log" keyword as the action rather than pass or block.
LOG_NOTICE - packets logged which are also passed
LOG_WARNING - packets logged which are also blocked
LOG_ERR - packets which have been logged and which can be considered short</screen>

      <!-- XXX: "can be considered short" == "with incomplete header" -->

      <para>To setup IPFILTER to log all data to
	<filename>/var/log/ipfilter.log</filename>, you will need to
	create the file.  The following command will do that:</para>

       <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>touch /var/log/ipfilter.log</userinput></screen>

      <para>The syslog function is controlled by definition statements
	in the <filename>/etc/syslog.conf</filename> file.  The
	<filename>syslog.conf</filename> file offers considerable
	flexibility in how syslog will deal with system messages issued
	by software applications like IPF.</para>

      <para>Add the following statement to
	<filename>/etc/syslog.conf</filename> for &os;&nbsp;5.X and
	later:</para>

      <programlisting>security.* /var/log/ipfilter.log</programlisting>

      <para>Or add the following statement to
        <filename>/etc/syslog.conf</filename> for &os;&nbsp;4.X:</para>

      <programlisting>local0.* /var/log/ipfilter.log</programlisting>

      <para>The <literal>security.*</literal> (<literal>local0</literal>
	for 4.X) means to write all the logged messages to the coded
	file location.</para>

      <para>To activate the changes to <filename>/etc/syslog.conf
	</filename> you can reboot or bump the syslog task into
	re-reading <filename>/etc/syslog.conf</filename> by running
	<command>/etc/rc.d/syslogd reload</command>
	(<command>killall -HUP syslogd</command> in &os; 4.X).</para>

      <para>Do not forget to change
	<filename>/etc/newsyslog.conf</filename> to rotate the new log
	you just created above.</para>
    </sect2>

    <sect2>
      <title>The Format of Logged Messages</title>

      <para>Messages generated by <command>ipmon</command> consist of
	data fields separated by white space.  Fields common to all
	messages are:</para>

      <orderedlist>
	<listitem>
	  <para>The date of packet receipt.</para>
	</listitem>

	<listitem>
	  <para>The time of packet receipt.  This is in the form
	    HH:MM:SS.F, for hours, minutes, seconds, and fractions of a
	    second (which can be several digits long).</para>
	</listitem>

	<listitem>
	  <para>The name of the interface the packet was processed on,
	    e.g. <devicename>dc0</devicename>.</para>
	</listitem>

	<listitem>
	  <para>The group and rule number of the rule, e.g.
	    <literal>@0:17</literal>.</para>
	</listitem>
      </orderedlist>

      <para>These can be viewed with <command>ipfstat
	-in</command>.</para>

      <orderedlist>
	<listitem>
	  <para>The action: p for passed, b for blocked, S for a short
	    packet, n did not match any rules, L for a log rule.  The
	    order of precedence in showing flags is: S, p, b, n, L.  A
	    capital P or B means that the packet has been logged due to
	    a global logging setting, not a particular rule.</para>
	</listitem>

	<listitem>
	  <para>The addresses.  This is actually three fields: the
	    source address and port (separated by a comma), the ->
	    symbol, and the destination address and port.
	    209.53.17.22,80 -> 198.73.220.17,1722.</para>
	</listitem>

	<listitem>
	  <para><literal>PR</literal> followed by the protocol name or
	    number, e.g. PR tcp.</para>
	</listitem>

	<listitem>
	  <para><literal>len</literal> followed by the header length
	    and total length of the packet, e.g. len 20 40.</para>
	</listitem>
      </orderedlist>

      <para>If the packet is a <acronym>TCP</acronym> packet, there
	will be an additional field starting with a hyphen followed by
	letters corresponding to any flags that were set.  See the
	&man.ipmon.8; manual page for a list of letters and their
	flags.</para>

      <para>If the packet is an ICMP packet, there will be two fields
	at the end, the first always being <quote>ICMP</quote>, and the
	next being the ICMP message and sub-message type, separated by
	a slash, e.g. ICMP 3/3 for a port unreachable message.</para>
    </sect2>

    <sect2 id="firewalls-ipf-rules-script">
      <title>Building the Rule Script with Symbolic
	Substitution</title>

      <para>Some experienced IPF users create a file containing the
	rules and code them in a manner compatible with running them as
	a script with symbolic substitution.  The major benefit of
	doing this is that you only have to change the value associated
	with the symbolic name and when the script is run all the rules
	containing the symbolic name will have the value substituted in
	the rules.  Being a script, you can use symbolic substitution
	to code frequently used values and substitute them in multiple
	rules.  You will see this in the following example.</para>

      <para>The script syntax used here is compatible with the sh, csh,
	and tcsh shells.</para>

      <para>Symbolic substitution fields are prefixed with a dollar
	sign: <literal>&dollar;</literal>.</para>

      <para>Symbolic fields do not have the &dollar; prefix.</para>

      <para>The value to populate the symbolic field must be enclosed
	with double quotes (<literal>"</literal>).</para>

      <para>Start your rule file with something like this:</para>

      <programlisting>############# Start of IPF rules script ########################

oif="dc0"            # name of the outbound interface
odns="192.0.2.11"    # ISP's DNS server IP address
myip="192.0.2.7"     # my static IP address from ISP
ks="keep state"
fks="flags S keep state"

# You can choose between building /etc/ipf.rules file
# from this script or running this script "as is".
#
# Uncomment only one line and comment out another.
#
# 1) This can be used for building /etc/ipf.rules:
#cat &gt; /etc/ipf.rules &lt;&lt; EOF
#
# 2) This can be used to run script "as is":
/sbin/ipf -Fa -f - &lt;&lt; EOF

# Allow out access to my ISP's Domain name server.
pass out quick on &dollar;oif proto tcp from any to &dollar;odns port = 53 &dollar;fks
pass out quick on &dollar;oif proto udp from any to &dollar;odns port = 53 &dollar;ks

# Allow out non-secure standard www function
pass out quick on &dollar;oif proto tcp from &dollar;myip to any port = 80 &dollar;fks

# Allow out secure www function https over TLS SSL
pass out quick on &dollar;oif proto tcp from &dollar;myip to any port = 443 &dollar;fks
EOF
################## End of IPF rules script ########################</programlisting>

      <para>That is all there is to it.  The rules are not important in
	this example; how the symbolic substitution fields are
	populated and used are.  If the above example was in a file
	named <filename>/etc/ipf.rules.script</filename>, you could
	reload these rules by entering the following command:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>sh /etc/ipf.rules.script</userinput></screen>

      <para>There is one problem with using a rules file with embedded
	symbolics: IPF does not understand symbolic substitution, and
	cannot read such scripts directly.</para>

      <para>This script can be used in one of two ways:</para>

      <itemizedlist>
	<listitem>
	  <para>Uncomment the line that begins with
	    <literal>cat</literal>, and comment out the line that
	    begins with <literal>/sbin/ipf</literal>.  Place
	    <literal>ipfilter_enable="YES"</literal> into
	    <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> as usual, and run script
	    once after each modification to create or update
	    <filename>/etc/ipf.rules</filename>.</para>
	</listitem>

	<listitem>
	  <para>Disable IPFILTER in system startup scripts by adding
	    <literal>ipfilter_enable="NO"</literal> (this is default
	    value) into <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> file.</para>

	  <para>Add a script like the following to your
	    <filename>/usr/local/etc/rc.d/</filename> startup
	    directory.  The script should have an obvious name like
	    <filename>ipf.loadrules.sh</filename>.  The
	    <filename>.sh</filename> extension is mandatory.</para>

	  <programlisting>#!/bin/sh
sh /etc/ipf.rules.script</programlisting>

	  <para>The permissions on this script file must be read,
	    write, execute for owner <username>root</username>.</para>

	  <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>chmod 700 /usr/local/etc/rc.d/ipf.loadrules.sh</userinput></screen>
	</listitem>
      </itemizedlist>

      <para>Now, when your system boots, your IPF rules will be
	loaded.</para>
    </sect2>

    <sect2>
      <title>IPF Rule Sets</title>

      <!-- XXX: looks incorrect (and duplicated 2 times in this chapter):
	    1. Packet can be processed two times depend of firewall
	       firewall configuration, but "return trip back" is
	       another packet.
	    2. "Each TCP/IP service ... is predefined by its protocol ..."
	       - this shold be about packet and it's parameters
	       (source/destination address and port). -->

      <para>A rule set is a group of ipf rules coded to pass or block
	packets based on the values contained in the packet.  The
	bi-directional exchange of packets between hosts comprises a
	session conversation.  The firewall rule set processes the
	packet two times, once on its arrival from the public Internet
	host and again as it leaves for its return trip back to the
	public Internet host.  Each TCP/IP service (i.e. telnet, www,
	mail, etc.) is predefined by its protocol, source and
	destination IP address, or the source and destination port
	number.  This is the basic selection criteria used to create
	rules which will pass or block services.</para>

      <indexterm>
	<primary>IPFILTER</primary>

	<secondary>rule processing order</secondary>
       </indexterm>

      <para>IPF was originally written using a rules processing logic
	of <quote>the last matching rule wins</quote> and used only
	stateless rules.  Over time IPF has been enhanced to include a
	<quote>quick</quote> option and a stateful <quote>keep
	  state</quote> option which drastically modernized the rule
	processing logic.</para>

      <para>The instructions contained in this section are based on
	using rules that contain the <quote>quick</quote> option and
	the stateful <quote>keep state</quote> option.  This is the
	basic framework for coding an inclusive firewall rule
	set.</para>

    <!-- XXX: something like this already in
	 <xref linkend="firewalls-concepts">
	 AND: the para below is repeated 3 times in this chapter-->

      <para>An inclusive firewall only allows services matching the
	rules through.  This way you can control what services can
	originate behind the firewall destined for the public Internet
	and also control the services which can originate from the
	public Internet accessing your private network.  Everything
	else is blocked and logged by default design.  Inclusive
	firewalls are much, much securer than exclusive firewall rule
	sets and is the only rule set type covered herein.</para>

      <warning>
	<para>When working with the firewall rules, be <emphasis>very
	    careful</emphasis>.  Some configurations <emphasis>will
	    lock you out</emphasis> of the server.  To be on the safe
	  side, you may wish to consider performing the initial
	  firewall configuration from the local console rather than
	  doing it remotely e.g. via
	  <application>ssh</application>.</para>
      </warning>
    </sect2>

    <sect2>
      <title>Rule Syntax</title>

      <indexterm>
	<primary>IPFILTER</primary>

	<secondary>rule syntax</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <para>The rule syntax presented here has been simplified to only
	address the modern stateful rule context and <quote>first
	matching rule wins</quote> logic.  For the complete legacy rule
	syntax description see the &man.ipf.8; manual page.</para>

      <para>A <literal>#</literal> character is used to mark the start
	of a comment and may appear at the end of a rule line or on its
	own line.  Blank lines are ignored.</para>

      <para>Rules contain keywords.  These keywords have to be coded in
	a specific order from left to right on the line.  Keywords are
	identified in bold type.  Some keywords have sub-options which
	may be keywords themselves and also include more sub-options.
	Each of the headings in the below syntax has a bold section
	header which expands on the content.</para>

      <!-- This section is probably wrong. See the OpenBSD flag -->
      <!-- What is the "OpenBSD flag"?  Reference please -->

      <para><replaceable>ACTION IN-OUT OPTIONS SELECTION STATEFUL PROTO
	  SRC_ADDR,DST_ADDR OBJECT PORT_NUM TCP_FLAG
	  STATEFUL</replaceable></para>

      <para><replaceable>ACTION</replaceable> = block | pass</para>

      <para><replaceable>IN-OUT</replaceable> = in | out</para>

      <para><replaceable>OPTIONS</replaceable> = log | quick | on
	  interface-name</para>

      <para><replaceable>SELECTION</replaceable> = proto value |
	  source/destination IP | port = number | flags
	  flag-value</para>

      <para><replaceable>PROTO</replaceable> = tcp/udp | udp | tcp |
	  icmp</para>

      <para><replaceable>SRC_ADD,DST_ADDR</replaceable> = all | from
	  object to object</para>

      <para><replaceable>OBJECT</replaceable> = IP address | any</para>

      <para><replaceable>PORT_NUM</replaceable> = port number</para>

      <para><replaceable>TCP_FLAG</replaceable> = S</para>

      <para><replaceable>STATEFUL</replaceable> = keep state</para>

      <sect3>
	<title>ACTION</title>

	<para>The action indicates what to do with the packet if it
	  matches the rest of the filter rule.  Each rule
	  <emphasis>must</emphasis> have a action.  The following
	  actions are recognized:</para>

	<para><literal>block</literal> indicates that the packet should
	  be dropped if the selection parameters match the
	  packet.</para>

	<para><literal>pass</literal> indicates that the packet should
	  exit the firewall if the selection parameters match the
	  packet.</para>
      </sect3>

      <sect3>
	<title>IN-OUT</title>

	<para>A mandatory requirement is that each filter rule
	  explicitly state which side of the I/O it is to be used on.
	  The next keyword must be either in or out and one or the
	  other has to be coded or the rule will not pass syntax
	  checks.</para>

	<para><literal>in</literal> means this rule is being applied
	  against an inbound packet which has just been received on the
	  interface facing the public Internet.</para>

	<para><literal>out</literal> means this rule is being applied
	  against an outbound packet destined for the interface facing
	  the public Internet.</para>
      </sect3>

      <sect3>
	<title>OPTIONS</title>

	<note>
	  <para>These options must be used in the order shown
	  here.</para>
	</note>

	<para><literal>log</literal> indicates that the packet header
	  will be written to

	<!-- XXX - xref here -->

	  the <devicename>ipl</devicename> log (as described in the
	  LOGGING section below) if the selection parameters match the
	  packet.</para>

	<para><literal>quick</literal> indicates that if the selection
	  parameters match the packet, this rule will be the last rule
	  checked, allowing a <quote>short-circuit</quote> path to avoid processing
	  any following rules for this packet.  This option is a
	  mandatory requirement for the modernized rules processing
	  logic.</para>

	<para><literal>on</literal> indicates the interface name to be
	  incorporated into the selection parameters.  Interface names
	  are as displayed by &man.ifconfig.8;.  Using this option, the
	  rule will only match if the packet is going through that
	  interface in the specified direction (in/out).  This option
	  is a mandatory requirement for the modernized rules
	  processing logic.</para>

	<para>When a packet is logged, the headers of the packet are
	  written to the IPL packet logging pseudo-device.
	  Immediately following the log keyword, the following
	  qualifiers may be used (in this order):</para>

	<para><literal>body</literal> indicates that the first 128
	  bytes of the packet contents will be logged after the
	  headers.</para>

	<para><literal>first</literal> If the <literal>log</literal>
	  keyword is being used in conjunction with a <quote>keep
	    state</quote> option, it is recommended that this option is
	  also applied so that only the triggering packet is logged and
	  not every packet which thereafter matches the <quote>keep
	    state</quote> information.</para>
      </sect3>

      <sect3>
	<title>SELECTION</title>

	<para>The keywords described in this section are used to
	  describe attributes of the packet to be interrogated when
	  determining whether rules match or not.  There is a
	  keyword subject, and it has sub-option keywords, one of
	  which has to be selected.  The following general-purpose
	  attributes are provided for matching, and must be used in
	  this order:</para>
      </sect3>

      <sect3>
	<title>PROTO</title>

	<para><literal>proto</literal> is the subject keyword and must
	  be coded along with one of its corresponding keyword
	  sub-option values.  The value allows a specific protocol to
	  be matched against.  This option is a mandatory requirement
	  for the modernized rules processing logic.</para>

	<para><literal>tcp/udp | udp | tcp | icmp</literal> or any
	  protocol names found in <filename>/etc/protocols</filename>
	  are recognized and may be used.  The special protocol keyword
	  <literal>tcp/udp</literal> may be used to match either a
	  <acronym>TCP</acronym> or a UDP packet, and has been added as
	  a convenience to save duplication of otherwise identical
	  rules.</para>
      </sect3>

      <sect3>
	<title>SRC_ADDR/DST_ADDR</title>

	<para>The <literal>all</literal> keyword is essentially a
	  synonym for <quote>from any to any</quote> with no other
	  match parameters.</para>

	<para><literal>from src to dst</literal>: the from and to
	  keywords are used to match against IP addresses.  Rules must
	  specify BOTH source and destination parameters.
	  <literal>any</literal> is a special keyword that matches any
	  IP address.  Examples of use: <quote>from any to any</quote>
	  or <quote>from 0.0.0.0/0 to any</quote> or <quote>from any to
	    0.0.0.0/0</quote> or <quote>from 0.0.0.0 to any</quote> or
	  <quote>from any to 0.0.0.0</quote>.</para>

	<!-- XXX: Needs rewording -->

	<para>IP addresses may be specified as a dotted IP address
	  numeric form/mask-length, or as single dotted IP address
	  numeric form.</para>

	<para>There is no way to match ranges of IP addresses which
	  do not express themselves easily as mask-length.  See this
	  web page for help on writing mask-length: <ulink
	    url="http://jodies.de/ipcalc"></ulink>.</para>
      </sect3>

      <sect3>
	<title>PORT</title>

	<para>If a port match is included, for either or both of source
	  and destination, then it is only applied to
	  <acronym>TCP</acronym> and UDP packets.  When composing port
	  comparisons, either the service name from
	  <filename>/etc/services</filename> or an integer port number
	  may be used.  When the port appears as part of the from
	  object, it matches the source port number; when it appears
	  as part of the to object, it matches the destination port
	  number.  The use of the port option with the
	  <literal>to</literal> object is a mandatory requirement for
	  the modernized rules processing logic.  Example of use:
	  <quote>from any to any port = 80</quote></para>

	<!-- XXX: Needs rewriting -->

	<para>Port comparisons may be done in a number of forms, with
	  a number of comparison operators, or port ranges may be
	  specified.</para>

	<para>port "=" | "!=" | "&lt;" | "&gt;" | "&lt;=" | "&gt;=" |
	  "eq" | "ne" | "lt" | "gt" | "le" | "ge".</para>

	<para>To specify port ranges, port "&lt;&gt;" |
	  "&gt;&lt;"</para>

	<warning>
	  <para>Following the source and destination matching
	    parameters, the following two parameters are mandatory
	    requirements for the modernized rules processing
	    logic.</para>
	</warning>
      </sect3>

      <sect3>
	<title><acronym>TCP</acronym>_FLAG</title>

	<para>Flags are only effective for <acronym>TCP</acronym>
	  filtering.  The letters represents one of the possible flags
	  that can be interrogated in the <acronym>TCP</acronym> packet
	  header.</para>

	<para>The modernized rules processing logic uses the
	  <literal>flags S</literal> parameter to identify the tcp
	  session start request.</para>
      </sect3>

      <sect3>
	<title>STATEFUL</title>

	<para><literal>keep state</literal> indicates that on a pass
	  rule, any packets that match the rules selection parameters
	  should activate the stateful filtering facility.</para>

	<note>
	  <para>This option is a mandatory requirement for the
	    modernized rules processing logic.</para>
	</note>
      </sect3>
    </sect2>

    <sect2>
      <title>Stateful Filtering</title>

      <indexterm>
	<primary>IPFILTER</primary>

	<secondary>stateful filtering</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <!-- XXX: duplicated -->

      <para>Stateful filtering treats traffic as a bi-directional
	exchange of packets comprising a session conversation.  When
	activated, keep-state dynamically generates internal rules for
	each anticipated packet being exchanged during the
	bi-directional session conversation.  It has the interrogation
	abilities to determine if the session conversation between the
	originating sender and the destination are following the valid
	procedure of bi-directional packet exchange.  Any packets that
	do not properly fit the session conversation template are
	automatically rejected as impostors.</para>

      <para>Keep state will also allow ICMP packets related to a
	<acronym>TCP</acronym> or UDP session through.  So if you get
	ICMP type 3 code 4 in response to some web surfing allowed out
	by a keep state rule, they will be automatically allowed in.
	Any packet that IPF can be certain is part of an active
	session, even if it is a different protocol, will be let
	in.</para>

      <para>What happens is:</para>

      <para>Packets destined to go out the interface connected to the
	public Internet are first checked against the dynamic state
	table, if the packet matches the next expected packet
	comprising in a active session conversation, then it exits the
	firewall and the state of the session conversation flow is
	updated in the dynamic state table, the remaining packets get
	checked against the outbound rule set.</para>

      <para>Packets coming in to the interface connected to the public
	Internet are first checked against the dynamic state table, if
	the packet matches the next expected packet comprising a
	active session conversation, then it exits the firewall and
	the state of the session conversation flow is updated in the
	dynamic state table, the remaining packets get checked against
	the inbound rule set.</para>

      <para>When the conversation completes it is removed from the
	dynamic state table.</para>

      <para>Stateful filtering allows you to focus on blocking/passing
	new sessions.  If the new session is passed, all its subsequent
	packets will be allowed through automatically and any impostors
	automatically rejected.  If a new session is blocked, none of
	its subsequent packets will be allowed through.  Stateful
	filtering has technically advanced interrogation abilities
	capable of defending against the flood of different attack
	methods currently employed by attackers.</para>
    </sect2>

    <sect2>
      <!-- XXX: This section needs a rewrite -->

      <title>Inclusive Rule Set Example</title>

      <para>The following rule set is an example of how to code a very
	secure inclusive type of firewall.  An inclusive firewall only
	allows services matching pass rules through and blocks all
	other by default.  All firewalls have at the minimum two
	interfaces which have to have rules to allow the firewall to
	function.</para>

      <para>All &unix; flavored systems including &os; are designed to
	use interface <devicename>lo0</devicename> and IP address
	<hostid role="ipaddr">127.0.0.1</hostid> for internal
	communication within the operating system.  The firewall rules
	must contain rules to allow free unmolested movement of these
	special internally used packets.</para>

      <para>The interface which faces the public Internet is the one
	where you place your rules to authorize and control access out
	to the public Internet and access requests arriving from the
	public Internet.  This can be your user PPP
	<devicename>tun0</devicename> interface or your NIC that is
	connected to your DSL or cable modem.</para>

      <para>In cases where one or more NICs are cabled to private LANs
	behind the firewall, those interfaces must have a rule coded to
	allow free unmolested movement of packets originating from
	those LAN interfaces.</para>

      <para>The rules should be first organized into three major
	sections: all the free unmolested interfaces, the public
	interface outbound, and the public interface inbound.</para>

      <para>The rules in each of the public interface sections should
	have the most frequently matched rules placed before less
	commonly matched rules, with the last rule in the section
	blocking and logging all packets on that interface and
	direction.</para>

      <para>The Outbound section in the following rule set only
	contains 'pass' rules which contain selection values that
	uniquely identify the service that is authorized for public
	Internet access.  All the rules have the 'quick', 'on',
	'proto', 'port', and 'keep state' option coded.  The 'proto
	tcp' rules have the 'flag' option included to identify the
	session start request as the triggering packet to activate the
	stateful facility.</para>

      <para>The Inbound section has all the blocking of undesirable
	packets first, for two different reasons.  The first is that
	these things being blocked may be part of an otherwise valid
	packet which may be allowed in by the later authorized service
	rules.  The second reason is that by having a rule that
	explicitly blocks selected packets that I receive on an
	infrequent basis and that I do not want to see in the log, they
	will not be caught by the last rule in the section which blocks
	and logs all packets which have fallen through the rules.  The
	last rule in the section which blocks and logs all packets is
	how you create the legal evidence needed to prosecute the
	people who are attacking your system.</para>

      <para>Another thing you should take note of, is there is no
	response returned for any of the undesirable stuff, their
	packets just get dropped and vanish.  This way the attacker
	has no knowledge if his packets have reached your system.  The
	less the attackers can learn about your system, the more
	time they must invest before actually doing something bad.
	The inbound 'nmap OS fingerprint' attempts rule I log

	<!-- XXX: what? -->

	the first occurrence because this is something a attacker
	would do.</para>

      <para>Any time you see log messages on a rule with 'log first'.
	You should do an <command>ipfstat -hio</command> command to see
	the number of times the rule has been matched so you know if
	you are being flooded, i.e. under attack.</para>

      <para>When you log packets with port numbers you do not
	recognize, look it up in <filename>/etc/services</filename> or
	go to <ulink
	  url="http://www.securitystats.com/tools/portsearch.php"></ulink>
	and do a port number lookup to find what the purpose of that
	port number is.</para>

      <para>Check out this link for port numbers used by Trojans <ulink
	  url="http://www.simovits.com/trojans/trojans.html"></ulink>.</para>

      <para>The following rule set is a complete very secure
	'inclusive' type of firewall rule set that I have used on my
	system.  You can not go wrong using this rule set for your own.
	Just comment out any pass rules for services that you do not
	want to authorize.</para>

      <para>If you see messages in your log that you want to stop
	seeing just add a block rule in the inbound section.</para>

      <para>You have to change the <devicename>dc0</devicename>
	interface name in every rule to the interface name of the Nic
	card that connects your system to the public Internet.  For
	user PPP it would be <devicename>tun0</devicename>.</para>

      <para>Add the following statements to
	<filename>/etc/ipf.rules</filename>:</para>

      <programlisting>#################################################################
# No restrictions on Inside LAN Interface for private network
# Not needed unless you have LAN
#################################################################

#pass out quick on xl0 all
#pass in quick on xl0 all

#################################################################
# No restrictions on Loopback Interface
#################################################################
pass in quick on lo0 all
pass out quick on lo0 all

#################################################################
# Interface facing Public Internet (Outbound Section)
# Interrogate session start requests originating from behind the
# firewall on the private network
# or from this gateway server destine for the public Internet.
#################################################################

# Allow out access to my ISP's Domain name server.
# xxx must be the IP address of your ISP's DNS.
# Dup these lines if your ISP has more than one DNS server
# Get the IP addresses from /etc/resolv.conf file
pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to xxx port = 53 flags S keep state
pass out quick on dc0 proto udp from any to xxx port = 53 keep state

# Allow out access to my ISP's DHCP server for cable or DSL networks.
# This rule is not needed for 'user ppp' type connection to the
# public Internet, so you can delete this whole group.
# Use the following rule and check log for IP address.
# Then put IP address in commented out rule & delete first rule
pass out log quick on dc0 proto udp from any to any port = 67 keep state
#pass out quick on dc0 proto udp from any to z.z.z.z port = 67 keep state


# Allow out non-secure standard www function
pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 80 flags S keep state

# Allow out secure www function https over TLS SSL
pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 443 flags S keep state

# Allow out send & get email function
pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 110 flags S keep state
pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 25 flags S keep state

# Allow out Time
pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 37 flags S keep state

# Allow out nntp news
pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 119 flags S keep state

# Allow out gateway & LAN users non-secure FTP ( both passive & active modes)
# This function uses the IP<acronym>NAT</acronym> built in FTP proxy function coded in
# the nat rules file to make this single rule function correctly.
# If you want to use the pkg_add command to install application packages
# on your gateway system you need this rule.
pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 21 flags S keep state

# Allow out secure FTP, Telnet, and SCP
# This function is using SSH (secure shell)
pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 22 flags S keep state

# Allow out non-secure Telnet
pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 23 flags S keep state

# Allow out FBSD CVSUP function
pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 5999 flags S keep state

# Allow out ping to public Internet
pass out quick on dc0 proto icmp from any to any icmp-type 8 keep state

# Allow out whois for LAN PC to public Internet
pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 43 flags S keep state

# Block and log only the first occurrence of everything
# else that's trying to get out.
# This rule enforces the block all by default logic.
block out log first quick on dc0 all

#################################################################
# Interface facing Public Internet (Inbound Section)
# Interrogate packets originating from the public Internet
# destine for this gateway server or the private network.
#################################################################

# Block all inbound traffic from non-routable or reserved address spaces
block in quick on dc0 from 192.168.0.0/16 to any    #RFC 1918 private IP
block in quick on dc0 from 172.16.0.0/12 to any     #RFC 1918 private IP
block in quick on dc0 from 10.0.0.0/8 to any        #RFC 1918 private IP
block in quick on dc0 from 127.0.0.0/8 to any       #loopback
block in quick on dc0 from 0.0.0.0/8 to any         #loopback
block in quick on dc0 from 169.254.0.0/16 to any    #DHCP auto-config
block in quick on dc0 from 192.0.2.0/24 to any      #reserved for docs
block in quick on dc0 from 204.152.64.0/23 to any   #Sun cluster interconnect
block in quick on dc0 from 224.0.0.0/3 to any       #Class D & E multicast

##### Block a bunch of different nasty things. ############
# That I do not want to see in the log

# Block frags
block in quick on dc0 all with frags

# Block short tcp packets
block in quick on dc0 proto tcp all with short

# block source routed packets
block in quick on dc0 all with opt lsrr
block in quick on dc0 all with opt ssrr

# Block nmap OS fingerprint attempts
# Log first occurrence of these so I can get their IP address
block in log first quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any flags FUP

# Block anything with special options
block in quick on dc0 all with ipopts

# Block public pings
block in quick on dc0 proto icmp all icmp-type 8

# Block ident
block in quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 113

# Block all Netbios service. 137=name, 138=datagram, 139=session
# Netbios is MS/Windows sharing services.
# Block MS/Windows hosts2 name server requests 81
block in log first quick on dc0 proto tcp/udp from any to any port = 137
block in log first quick on dc0 proto tcp/udp from any to any port = 138
block in log first quick on dc0 proto tcp/udp from any to any port = 139
block in log first quick on dc0 proto tcp/udp from any to any port = 81

# Allow traffic in from ISP's DHCP server. This rule must contain
# the IP address of your ISP's DHCP server as it's the only
# authorized source to send this packet type. Only necessary for
# cable or DSL configurations. This rule is not needed for
# 'user ppp' type connection to the public Internet.
# This is the same IP address you captured and
# used in the outbound section.
pass in quick on dc0 proto udp from z.z.z.z to any port = 68 keep state

# Allow in standard www function because I have apache server
pass in quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 80 flags S keep state

# Allow in non-secure Telnet session from public Internet
# labeled non-secure because ID/PW passed over public Internet as clear text.
# Delete this sample group if you do not have telnet server enabled.
#pass in quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 23 flags S keep state

# Allow in secure FTP, Telnet, and SCP from public Internet
# This function is using SSH (secure shell)
pass in quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 22 flags S keep state

# Block and log only first occurrence of all remaining traffic
# coming into the firewall. The logging of only the first
# occurrence stops a .denial of service. attack targeted
# at filling up your log file space.
# This rule enforces the block all by default logic.
block in log first quick on dc0 all
################### End of rules file #####################################</programlisting>
    </sect2>

    <sect2>
      <title><acronym>NAT</acronym></title>

      <indexterm><primary>NAT</primary></indexterm>

      <indexterm>
	<primary>IP masquerading</primary>

	<see>NAT</see>
      </indexterm>

      <indexterm>
	<primary>network address translation</primary>

	<see>NAT</see>
      </indexterm>

      <para><acronym>NAT</acronym> stands for Network Address
	Translation.  To those familiar with &linux;, this concept is
	called IP Masquerading; <acronym>NAT</acronym> and IP
	Masquerading are the same thing.  One of the many things the
	IPF <acronym>NAT</acronym> function enables is the ability to
	have a private Local Area Network (LAN) behind the firewall
	sharing a single ISP assigned IP address on the public
	Internet.</para>

      <para>You may ask why would someone want to do this.  ISPs
	normally assign a dynamic IP address to their non-commercial
	users.  Dynamic means that the IP address can be different each
	time you dial in and log on to your ISP, or for cable and DSL
	modem users when you power off and then power on your modems
	you can get assigned a different IP address.  This IP address
	is how you are known to the public Internet.</para>

      <para>Now lets say you have five PCs at home and each one needs
	Internet access.  You would have to pay your ISP for an
	individual Internet account for each PC and have five phone
	lines.</para>

      <para>With <acronym>NAT</acronym> you only need a single account
	with your ISP, then cable your other four PCs to a switch and
	the switch to the NIC in your &os; system which is going to
	service your LAN as a gateway. <acronym>NAT</acronym> will
	automatically translate the private LAN IP address for each
	separate PC on the LAN to the single public IP address as it
	exits the firewall bound for the public Internet.  It also does
	the reverse translation for returning packets.</para>

      <para><acronym>NAT</acronym> is most often accomplished without
	the approval, or knowledge, of your ISP and in most cases is
	grounds for your ISP terminating your account if found out.
	Commercial users pay a lot more for their Internet connection
	and usually get assigned a block of static IP address which
	never change.  The ISP also expects and consents to their
	Commercial customers using <acronym>NAT</acronym> for their
	internal private LANs.</para>

      <para>There is a special range of IP addresses reserved for
	<acronym>NAT</acronym>ed private LAN IP address.  According to
	RFC 1918, you can use the following IP ranges for private nets
	which will never be routed directly to the public
	Internet:</para>

      <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
	<tgroup cols="2">
	  <colspec colwidth="1*">

	  <colspec colwidth="1*">

	  <colspec colwidth="1*">

	  <tbody>
	    <row>
	      <entry>Start IP <hostid role="ipaddr">10.0.0.0</hostid></entry>

	      <entry>-</entry>

	      <entry>Ending IP <hostid role="ipaddr">10.255.255.255</hostid></entry>
	    </row>

	    <row>
	      <entry>Start IP <hostid role="ipaddr">172.16.0.0</hostid></entry>

	      <entry>-</entry>

	      <entry>Ending IP <hostid role="ipaddr">172.31.255.255</hostid></entry>
	    </row>

	    <row>
	      <entry>Start IP <hostid role="ipaddr">192.168.0.0</hostid></entry>

	      <entry>-</entry>

	      <entry>Ending IP <hostid role="ipaddr">192.168.255.255</hostid></entry>
	    </row>
	  </tbody>
	</tgroup>
      </informaltable>
    </sect2>

    <sect2>
      <title>IP<acronym>NAT</acronym></title>

      <indexterm>
	<primary>NAT</primary>

	<secondary>and IPFILTER</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <indexterm><primary><command>ipnat</command></primary></indexterm>

      <para><acronym>NAT</acronym> rules are loaded by using the
	<command>ipnat</command> command.  Typically the
	<acronym>NAT</acronym> rules are stored in
	<filename>/etc/ipnat.rules</filename>.  See &man.ipnat.1; for
	details.</para>

      <para>When changing the <acronym>NAT</acronym> rules after
	<acronym>NAT</acronym> has been started, make your changes to
	the file containing the NAT rules, then run ipnat command with
	the <option>-CF</option> flags to delete the internal in use
	<acronym>NAT</acronym> rules and flush the contents of the
	translation table of all active entries.</para>

      <para>To reload the <acronym>NAT</acronym> rules issue a command
	like this:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>ipnat -CF -f /etc/ipnat.rules</userinput></screen>

      <para>To display some statistics about your
	<acronym>NAT</acronym>, use this command:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>ipnat -s</userinput></screen>

      <para>To list the <acronym>NAT</acronym> table's current
	mappings, use this command:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>ipnat -l</userinput></screen>

      <para>To turn verbose mode on, and display information relating
	to rule processing and active rules/table entries:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>ipnat -v</userinput></screen>
    </sect2>

    <sect2>
      <title>IP<acronym>NAT</acronym> Rules</title>

      <para><acronym>NAT</acronym> rules are very flexible and can
	accomplish many different things to fit the needs of commercial
	and home users.</para>

      <para>The rule syntax presented here has been simplified to what
	is most commonly used in a non-commercial environment.  For a
	complete rule syntax description see the &man.ipnat.5; manual
	page.</para>

      <para>The syntax for a <acronym>NAT</acronym> rule looks
	something like this:</para>

      <programlisting>map <replaceable>IF</replaceable> <replaceable>LAN_IP_RANGE</replaceable> -> <replaceable>PUBLIC_ADDRESS</replaceable></programlisting>

      <para>The keyword <literal>map</literal> starts the rule.</para>

      <para>Replace <replaceable>IF</replaceable> with the external
	interface.</para>

      <para>The <replaceable>LAN_IP_RANGE</replaceable> is what your
	internal clients use for IP Addressing, usually this is
	something like <hostid
	  role="ipaddr">192.168.1.0/24</hostid>.</para>

      <para>The <replaceable>PUBLIC_ADDRESS</replaceable> can either
	be the external IP address or the special keyword
	<literal>0/32</literal>, which means to use the IP address
	assigned to <replaceable>IF</replaceable>.</para>
    </sect2>

    <sect2>
      <title>How <acronym>NAT</acronym> works</title>

      <para>A packet arrives at the firewall from the LAN with a public
	destination.  It passes through the outbound filter rules,
	<acronym>NAT</acronym> gets his turn at the packet and applies
	its rules top down, first matching rule wins.
	<acronym>NAT</acronym> tests each of its rules against the
	packets interface name and source IP address.  When a packets
	interface name matches a <acronym>NAT</acronym> rule then the
	[source IP address, i.e. private LAN IP address] of the packet
	is checked to see if it falls within the IP address range
	specified to the left of the arrow symbol on the
	<acronym>NAT</acronym> rule.  On a match the packet has its
	source IP address rewritten with the public IP address
	obtained by the <literal>0/32</literal> keyword.
	<acronym>NAT</acronym> posts a entry in its internal
	<acronym>NAT</acronym> table so when the packet returns from
	the public Internet it can be mapped back to its original
	private IP address and then passed to the filter rules for
	processing.</para>
    </sect2>

    <sect2>
      <title>Enabling IP<acronym>NAT</acronym></title>

      <para>To enable IP<acronym>NAT</acronym> add these statements to
	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.</para>

      <para>To enable your machine to route traffic between
	interfaces:</para>

      <programlisting>gateway_enable="YES"</programlisting>

      <para>To start IP<acronym>NAT</acronym> automatically each
	time:</para>

      <programlisting>ipnat_enable="YES"</programlisting>

      <para>To specify where to load the IP<acronym>NAT</acronym> rules
	from:</para>

      <programlisting>ipnat_rules="/etc/ipnat.rules"</programlisting>
    </sect2>

    <sect2>
      <title><acronym>NAT</acronym> for a very large LAN</title>

      <para>For networks that have large numbers of PC's on the LAN or
	networks with more than a single LAN, the process of funneling
	all those private IP addresses into a single public IP address
	becomes a resource problem that may cause problems with the
	same port numbers being used many times across many
	<acronym>NAT</acronym>ed LAN PC's, causing collisions.  There
	are two ways to relieve this resource problem.</para>

      <sect3>
	<title>Assigning Ports to Use</title>

	<!-- What does it mean ? Is there something missing ?-->
	<!-- XXXBLAH <- Apparently you can't start a sect
	     with a <programlisting> tag ?-->

	<para>A normal NAT rule would look like:</para>

	<programlisting>map dc0 192.168.1.0/24 -> 0/32</programlisting>

	<para>In the above rule the packet's source port is unchanged
	  as the packet passes through IP<acronym>NAT</acronym>.  By
	  adding the portmap keyword you can tell
	  IP<acronym>NAT</acronym> to only use source ports in a range.
	  For example the following rule will tell
	  IP<acronym>NAT</acronym> to modify the source port to be
	  within that range:</para>

	<programlisting>map dc0 192.168.1.0/24 -> 0/32 portmap tcp/udp 20000:60000</programlisting>

	<para>Additionally we can make things even easier by using the
	  <literal>auto</literal> keyword to tell
	  IP<acronym>NAT</acronym> to determine by itself which ports
	  are available to use:</para>

	<programlisting>map dc0 192.168.1.0/24 -> 0/32 portmap tcp/udp auto</programlisting>
      </sect3>

      <sect3>
	<title>Using a pool of public addresses</title>

	<para>In very large LANs there comes a point where there are
	  just too many LAN addresses to fit into a single public
	  address.  By changing the following rule:</para>

	<programlisting>map dc0 192.168.1.0/24 -> 204.134.75.1</programlisting>

	<para>Currently this rule maps all connections through <hostid
	    role="ipaddr">204.134.75.1</hostid>.  This can be changed
	  to specify a range:</para>

	<programlisting>map dc0 192.168.1.0/24 -> 204.134.75.1-10</programlisting>

	<para>Or a subnet using CIDR notation such as:</para>

	<programlisting>map dc0 192.168.1.0/24 -> 204.134.75.0/24</programlisting>
      </sect3>
    </sect2>

    <sect2>
      <title>Port Redirection</title>

      <para>A very common practice is to have a web server, email
	server, database server and DNS server each segregated to a
	different PC on the LAN.  In this case the traffic from these
	servers still have to be <acronym>NAT</acronym>ed, but there
	has to be some way to direct the inbound traffic to the
	correct LAN PCs.  IP<acronym>NAT</acronym> has the redirection
	facilities of <acronym>NAT</acronym> to solve this problem.
	Lets say you have your web server on LAN address <hostid
	  role="ipaddr">10.0.10.25</hostid> and your single public IP
	address is <hostid role="ipaddr">20.20.20.5</hostid> you would
	code the rule like this:</para>

	<programlisting>rdr dc0 20.20.20.5/32 port 80 -> 10.0.10.25 port 80</programlisting>

	<para>or:</para>

	<programlisting>rdr dc0 0/32 port 80 -> 10.0.10.25 port 80</programlisting>

	<para>or for a LAN DNS Server on LAN address of <hostid
	    role="ipaddr">10.0.10.33</hostid> that needs to receive
	  public DNS requests:</para>

	<programlisting>rdr dc0 20.20.20.5/32 port 53 -> 10.0.10.33 port 53 udp</programlisting>
    </sect2>

    <sect2>
      <title>FTP and <acronym>NAT</acronym></title>

      <para>FTP is a dinosaur left over from the time before the
	Internet as it is known today, when research universities were
	leased lined together and FTP was used to share files among
	research Scientists.  This was a time when data security was
	not a consideration.  Over the years the FTP protocol became
	buried into the backbone of the emerging Internet and its
	username and password being sent in clear text was never
	changed to address new security concerns.  FTP has two flavors,
	it can run in active mode or passive mode.  The difference is
	in how the data channel is acquired.  Passive mode is more
	secure as the data channel is acquired be the ordinal ftp
	session requester.  For a real good explanation of FTP and the
	different modes see <ulink
	  url="http://www.slacksite.com/other/ftp.html"></ulink>.</para>

      <sect3>
	<title>IP<acronym>NAT</acronym> Rules</title>

	<para>IP<acronym>NAT</acronym> has a special built in FTP proxy
	  option which can be specified on the <acronym>NAT</acronym>
	  map rule.  It can monitor all outbound packet traffic for FTP
	  active or passive start session requests and dynamically
	  create temporary filter rules containing only the port number
	  really in use for the data channel.  This eliminates the
	  security risk FTP normally exposes the firewall to from
	  having large ranges of high order port numbers open.</para>

	<para>This rule will handle all the traffic for the internal
	  LAN:</para>

	<programlisting>map dc0 10.0.10.0/29 -> 0/32 proxy port 21 ftp/tcp</programlisting>

	<para>This rule handles the FTP traffic from the
	  gateway:</para>

	<programlisting>map dc0 0.0.0.0/0 -> 0/32 proxy port 21 ftp/tcp</programlisting>

	<para>This rule handles all non-FTP traffic from the internal
	  LAN:</para>

	<programlisting>map dc0 10.0.10.0/29 -> 0/32</programlisting>

	<para>The FTP map rule goes before our regular map rule.  All
	  packets are tested against the first rule from the top.
	  Matches on interface name, then private LAN source IP
	  address, and then is it a FTP packet.  If all that matches
	  then the special FTP proxy creates temp filter rules to let
	  the FTP session packets pass in and out, in addition to also
	  <acronym>NAT</acronym>ing the FTP packets.  All LAN packets
	  that are not FTP do not match the first rule and fall
	  through to the third rule and are tested, matching on
	  interface and source IP, then are
	  <acronym>NAT</acronym>ed.</para>
      </sect3>

      <sect3>
	<title>IP<acronym>NAT</acronym> FTP Filter Rules</title>

	<para>Only one filter rule is needed for FTP if the
	  <acronym>NAT</acronym> FTP proxy is used.</para>

	<para>Without the FTP Proxy you will need the following three
	  rules:</para>

	<programlisting># Allow out LAN PC client FTP to public Internet
# Active and passive modes
pass out quick on rl0 proto tcp from any to any port = 21 flags S keep state

# Allow out passive mode data channel high order port numbers
pass out quick on rl0 proto tcp from any to any port > 1024 flags S keep state

# Active mode let data channel in from FTP server
pass in quick on rl0 proto tcp from any to any port = 20 flags S keep state</programlisting>
      </sect3>

      <sect3>
	<title>FTP <acronym>NAT</acronym> Proxy Bug</title>

	<para>As of &os; 4.9 which includes IPFILTER version 3.4.31
	  the FTP proxy works as documented during the FTP session
	  until the session is told to close.  When the close happens
	  packets returning from the remote FTP server are blocked and
	  logged coming in on port 21.  The <acronym>NAT</acronym>
	  FTP/proxy appears to remove its temp rules prematurely,
	  before receiving the response from the remote FTP server
	  acknowledging the close.  A problem report was posted to the
	  IPF mailing list.</para>

	<para>The solution is to add a filter rule to get rid of these
	  unwanted log messages or do nothing and ignore FTP inbound
	  error messages in your log.  Most people do not use outbound
	  FTP too often.</para>

	<programlisting>block in quick on rl0 proto tcp from any to any port = 21</programlisting>
      </sect3>
    </sect2>
  </sect1>

  <sect1 id="firewalls-ipfw">
    <title>IPFW</title>

    <indexterm>
      <primary>firewall</primary>

      <secondary>IPFW</secondary>
    </indexterm>

    <note>
      <para>This section is work in progress.  The contents might
	not be accurate at all times.</para>
    </note>

    <para>The IPFIREWALL (IPFW) is a &os; sponsored firewall software
      application authored and maintained by &os; volunteer staff
      members.  It uses the legacy stateless rules and a legacy rule
      coding technique to achieve what is referred to as Simple
      Stateful logic.</para>

    <para>The IPFW sample rule set (found in
      <filename>/etc/rc.firewall</filename>) in the standard &os;
      install is rather simple and it is not expected that it used
      directly without modifications.  The example does not use
      stateful filtering, which is beneficial in most setups, so it
      will not be used as base for this section.</para>

    <para>The IPFW stateless rule syntax is empowered with technically
      sophisticated selection capabilities which far surpasses the
      knowledge level of the customary firewall installer.  IPFW is
      targeted at the professional user or the advanced technical
      computer hobbyist who have advanced packet selection
      requirements.  A high degree of detailed knowledge into how
      different protocols use and create their unique packet header
      information is necessary before the power of the IPFW rules can
      be unleashed.  Providing that level of explanation is out of the
      scope of this section of the handbook.</para>

    <para>IPFW is composed of seven components, the primary component
      is the kernel firewall filter rule processor and its integrated
      packet accounting facility, the logging facility, the 'divert'
      rule which triggers the <acronym>NAT</acronym> facility, and the
      advanced special purpose facilities, the dummynet traffic shaper
      facilities, the 'fwd rule' forward facility, the bridge
      facility, and the ipstealth facility.</para>

    <sect2 id="firewalls-ipfw-enable">
      <title>Enabling IPFW</title>

      <indexterm>
	<primary>IPFW</primary>

	<secondary>enabling</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <para>IPFW is included in the basic &os; install as a separate
	run time loadable module.  The system will dynamically load the
	kernel module when the <filename>rc.conf</filename> statement
	<literal>firewall_enable="YES"</literal> is used.  You do not
	need to compile IPFW into the &os; kernel unless you want
	<acronym>NAT</acronym> function enabled.</para>

      <para>After rebooting your system with
	<literal>firewall_enable="YES"</literal> in
	<filename>rc.conf</filename> the following white highlighted
	message is displayed on the screen as part of the boot
	process:</para>

      <screen>ipfw2 initialized, divert disabled, rule-based forwarding disabled, default to deny, logging disabled</screen>

      <para>The loadable module does have logging ability
	compiled in.  To enable logging and set the verbose logging
	limit, there is a knob you can set in
	<filename>/etc/sysctl.conf</filename> by adding these
	statements, logging will be enabled on future reboots:</para>

      <programlisting>net.inet.ip.fw.verbose=1
net.inet.ip.fw.verbose_limit=5</programlisting>
    </sect2>

    <sect2 id="firewalls-ipfw-kernel">
      <title>Kernel Options</title>

      <indexterm>
	<primary>kernel options</primary>

	<secondary>IPFIREWALL</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <indexterm>
	<primary>kernel options</primary>

	<secondary>IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <indexterm>
	<primary>kernel options</primary>

	<secondary>IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <indexterm>
	<primary>IPFW</primary>

	<secondary>kernel options</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <para>It is not a mandatory requirement that you enable IPFW by
	compiling the following options into the &os; kernel unless
	you need <acronym>NAT</acronym> function.  It is presented here
	as background information.</para>

      <programlisting>options    IPFIREWALL</programlisting>

      <para>This option enables IPFW as part of the kernel</para>

      <programlisting>options    IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE</programlisting>

      <para>Enables logging of packets that pass through IPFW and have
	the 'log' keyword specified in the rule set.</para>

      <programlisting>options    IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT=5</programlisting>

      <para>Limits the number of packets logged through &man.syslogd.8;
	on a per entry basis.  You may wish to use this option in
	hostile environments which you want to log firewall activity.
	This will close a possible denial of service attack via syslog
	flooding.</para>

      <indexterm>
	<primary>kernel options</primary>

	<secondary>IPFIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <programlisting>options    IPFIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT</programlisting>

      <para>This option will allow everything to pass through the
	firewall by default, which is a good idea when you are first
	setting up your firewall.</para>

      <programlisting>options    IPV6FIREWALL
options    IPV6FIREWALL_VERBOSE
options    IPV6FIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT
options    IPV6FIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT</programlisting>

      <para>These options are exactly the same as the IPv4 options but
	they are for IPv6.  If you do not use IPv6 you might want to
	use IPV6FIREWALL without any rules to block all IPv6</para>

      <indexterm>
	<primary>kernel options</primary>

	<secondary>IPDIVERT</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <programlisting>options    IPDIVERT</programlisting>

      <para>This enables the use of <acronym>NAT</acronym>
	functionality.</para>

      <note>
	<para>If you do not include IPFIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT or set
	  your rules to allow incoming packets you will block all
	  packets going to and from this machine.</para>
      </note>
    </sect2>

    <sect2 id="firewalls-ipfw-rc">
      <title><filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> Options</title>

      <para>If you do not have IPFW compiled into your kernel you will
	need to load it with the following statement in your
	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>

      <programlisting>firewall_enable="YES"</programlisting>

      <para>Set the script to run to activate your rules:</para>

      <programlisting>firewall_script="/etc/ipfw.rules"</programlisting>

      <para>Enable logging:</para>

      <programlisting>firewall_logging="YES"</programlisting>

      <warning>
	<para>The only thing that the
	  <varname>firewall_logging</varname> variable will do is
	  setting the <varname>net.inet.ip.fw.verbose</varname> sysctl
	  variable to the value of <literal>1</literal> (see <xref
	    linkend="firewalls-ipfw-enable">).  There is no
	  <filename>rc.conf</filename> variable to set log limitations,
	  but it can be set via sysctl variable, manually or from the
	  <filename>/etc/sysctl.conf</filename> file:</para>

	<programlisting>net.inet.ip.fw.verbose_limit=5</programlisting>
      </warning>
    </sect2>

    <sect2 id="firewalls-ipfw-cmd">
      <title>The IPFW Command</title>

      <indexterm><primary><command>ipfw</command></primary></indexterm>

      <para>The ipfw command is the normal vehicle for making manual
	single rule additions or deletions to the firewall active
	internal rules while it is running.  The problem with using
	this method is once your system is shutdown or halted all the
	rules you added or changed or deleted are lost.  Writing all
	your rules in a file and using that file to load the rules at
	boot time, or to replace in mass the currently running firewall
	rules with changes you made to the files content is the
	recommended method used here.</para>

      <para>The ipfw command is still a very useful to display the
	running firewall rules to the console screen.  The IPFW
	accounting facility dynamically creates a counter for each
	rule that counts each packet that matches the rule.  During the
	process of testing a rule, listing the rule with its counter
	is the one of the ways of determining if the rule is
	functioning.</para>

      <para>To list all the rules in sequence:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>ipfw list</userinput></screen>

      <para>To list all the rules with a time stamp of when the last
	time the rule was matched:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>ipfw -t list</userinput></screen>

      <para>To list the accounting information, packet count for
	matched rules along with the rules themselves.  The first
	column is the rule number, followed by the number of outgoing
	matched packets, followed by the number of incoming matched
	packets, and then the rule itself.</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>ipfw -a list</userinput></screen>

      <para>List the dynamic rules in addition to the static
	rules:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>ipfw -d list</userinput></screen>

      <para>Also show the expired dynamic rules:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>ipfw -d -e list</userinput></screen>

      <para>Zero the counters:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>ipfw zero</userinput></screen>

      <para>Zero the counters for just rule
	<replaceable>NUM</replaceable>:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>ipfw zero NUM</userinput></screen>
    </sect2>

    <sect2 id="firewalls-ipfw-rules">
      <title>IPFW Rule Sets</title>

      <!-- XXX: looks incorrect (and duplicated 2 times in this chapter):
	    1. Packet can be processed two times depend of firewall
	       firewall configuration, but "return trip back" is
	       another packet.
	    2. "Each TCP/IP service ... is predefined by its protocol ..."
	       - this shold be about packet and it's parameters
	       (source/destination address and port). -->

      <para>A rule set is a group of ipfw rules coded to allow or deny
	packets based on the values contained in the packet.  The
	bi-directional exchange of packets between hosts comprises a
	session conversation.  The firewall rule set processes the
	packet twice: once on its arrival from the public Internet host
	and again as it leaves for its return trip back to the public
	Internet host.  Each tcp/ip service (i.e. telnet, www, mail,
	etc.) is predefined by its protocol, and port number.  This is
	the basic selection criteria used to create rules which will
	allow or deny services.</para>

      <indexterm>
	<primary>IPFW</primary>

	<secondary>rule processing order</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <!-- Needs rewording to include note below -->

      <para>When a packet enters the firewall it is compared against
	the first rule in the rule set and progress one rule at a time
	moving from top to bottom of the set in ascending rule number
	sequence order.  When the packet matches a rule selection
	parameters, the rules action field value is executed and the
	search of the rule set terminates for that packet.  This is
	referred to as <quote>the first match wins</quote> search
	method.  If the packet does not match any of the rules, it gets
	caught by the mandatory ipfw default rule, number 65535 which
	denies all packets and discards them without any reply back to
	the originating destination.</para>

      <note>
	<para>The search continues after <literal>count</literal>,
	  <literal>skipto</literal> and <literal>tee</literal>
	  rules.</para>
      </note>

      <para>The instructions contained here are based on using rules
	that contain the stateful 'keep state', 'limit', 'in'/'out',
	and via options.  This is the basic framework for coding an
	inclusive type firewall rule set.</para>

    <!-- XXX: something like this already in
	 <xref linkend="firewalls-concepts">
	 AND: the para below is repeated 3 times in this chapter. -->

      <para>An inclusive firewall only allows services matching the
	rules through.  This way you can control what services can
	originate behind the firewall destine for the public Internet
	and also control the services which can originate from the
	public Internet accessing your private network.  Everything
	else is denied by default design.  Inclusive firewalls are
	much, much more secure than exclusive firewall rule sets and
	is the only rule set type covered here in.</para>

      <warning>
	<para>When working with the firewall rules be careful, you can
	  end up locking your self out.</para>
      </warning>

      <sect3 id="firewalls-ipfw-rules-syntax">
	<title>Rule Syntax</title>

	<indexterm>
	  <primary>IPFW</primary>

	  <secondary>rule syntax</secondary>
	</indexterm>

	<para>The rule syntax presented here has been simplified to
	  what is necessary to create a standard inclusive type
	  firewall rule set.  For a complete rule syntax description
	  see the &man.ipfw.8; manual page.</para>

	<para>Rules contain keywords: these keywords have to be coded
	  in a specific order from left to right on the line.  Keywords
	  are identified in bold type.  Some keywords have sub-options
	  which may be keywords them selves and also include more
	  sub-options.</para>

	<para><literal>#</literal> is used to mark the start of a
	  comment and may appear at the end of a rule line or on its
	  own lines.  Blank lines are ignored.</para>

	<para><replaceable>CMD RULE_NUMBER ACTION LOGGING SELECTION
	    STATEFUL</replaceable></para>

	<sect4>
	  <title>CMD</title>

	  <para>Each new rule has to be prefixed with
	    <parameter>add</parameter> to add the
	    rule to the internal table.</para>
	</sect4>

	<sect4>
	  <title>RULE_NUMBER</title>

	  <para>Each rule has to have a rule number to go with
	    it.</para>
	</sect4>

	<sect4>
	  <title>ACTION</title>

	  <para>A rule can be associated with one of the following
	    actions, which will be executed when the packet matches
	    the selection criterion of the rule.</para>

	  <para><parameter>allow | accept | pass |
	      permit</parameter></para>

	  <para>These all mean the same thing which is to allow packets
	    that match the rule to exit the firewall rule processing.
	    The search terminates at this rule.</para>

	  <para><parameter>check-state</parameter></para>

	  <para>Checks the packet against the dynamic rules table.  If
	    a match is found, execute the action associated with the
	    rule which generated this dynamic rule, otherwise move to
	    the next rule.  The check-state rule does not have
	    selection criterion.  If no check-state rule is present in
	    the rule set, the dynamic rules table is checked at the
	    first keep-state or limit rule.</para>

	  <para><parameter>deny | drop</parameter></para>

	  <para>Both words mean the same thing which is to discard
	    packets that match this rule.  The search
	    terminates.</para>
	</sect4>

	<sect4>
	  <title>Logging</title>

	  <para><parameter>log</parameter> or
	    <parameter>logamount</parameter></para>

	  <para>When a packet matches a rule with the log keyword, a
	    message will be logged to syslogd with a facility name of
	    SECURITY.  The logging only occurs if the number of
	    packets logged so far for that particular rule does not
	    exceed the logamount parameter.  If no logamount is
	    specified, the limit is taken from the sysctl variable
	    net.inet.ip.fw.verbose_limit.  In both cases, a value of
	    zero removes the logging limit.  Once the limit is
	    reached, logging can be re-enabled by clearing the
	    logging counter or the packet counter for that rule, see
	    the ipfw reset log command.</para>

	  <note>
	    <para>Logging is done after
	      all other packet matching conditions have been
	      successfully verified, and before performing the final
	      action (accept, deny) on the packet.  It is up to you to
	      decide which rules you want to enable logging on.</para>
	    </note>
	</sect4>

	<sect4>
	  <title>Selection</title>

	  <para>The keywords described in this section are used to
	    describe attributes of the packet to be interrogated when
	    determining whether rules match the packet or not.
	    The following general-purpose attributes are provided for
	    matching, and must be used in this order:</para>

	  <para><parameter>udp | tcp | icmp</parameter></para>

	  <para>or any protocol names found in
	    <filename>/etc/protocols</filename> are recognized and may
	    be used.  The value specified is protocol to be matched
	    against.  This is a mandatory requirement.</para>

	  <para><parameter>from src to dst</parameter></para>

	  <para>The from and to keywords are used to match against IP
	    addresses.  Rules must specify BOTH source and destination
	    parameters. <literal>any</literal> is a special keyword
	    that matches any IP address. <literal>me</literal> is a
	    special keyword that matches any IP address configured on
	    an interface in your &os; system to represent the PC the
	    firewall is running on (i.e. this box) as in 'from me to
	    any' or 'from any to me' or 'from 0.0.0.0/0 to any' or
	    'from any to 0.0.0.0/0' or 'from 0.0.0.0 to any' or 'from
	    any to 0.0.0.0' or 'from me to 0.0.0.0'.  IP addresses are
	    specified as a dotted IP address numeric form/mask-length,
	    or as single dotted IP address numeric form.  This is a
	    mandatory requirement.  See this link for help on writing
	    mask-lengths. <ulink
	      url="http://jodies.de/ipcalc"></ulink></para>

	  <para><parameter>port number</parameter></para>

	  <para>For protocols which support port numbers (such as
	    <acronym>TCP</acronym> and UDP).  It is mandatory that you
	    code the port number of the service you want to match
	    on.  Service names (from
	    <filename>/etc/services</filename>) may be used instead of
	    numeric port values.</para>

	  <para><parameter>in | out</parameter></para>

	  <para>Matches incoming or outgoing packets, respectively.
	    The in and out are keywords and it is mandatory that you
	    code one or the other as part of your rule matching
	    criterion.</para>

	  <para><parameter>via IF</parameter></para>

	  <para>Matches packets going through the interface specified
	    by exact name.  The <literal>via</literal> keyword causes
	    the interface to always be checked as part of the match
	    process.</para>

	  <para><parameter>setup</parameter></para>

	  <para>This is a mandatory keyword that identifies the session
	    start request for <acronym>TCP</acronym> packets.</para>

	  <para><parameter>keep-state</parameter></para>

	  <para>This is a mandatory> keyword.  Upon a match, the
	    firewall will create a dynamic rule, whose default behavior
	    is to match bidirectional traffic between source and
	    destination IP/port using the same protocol.</para>

	  <para><parameter>limit {src-addr | src-port | dst-addr |
	      dst-port}</parameter></para>

	  <para>The firewall will only allow
	    <replaceable>N</replaceable> connections with the same set
	    of parameters as specified in the rule.  One or more of
	    source and destination addresses and ports can be
	    specified.  The 'limit' and 'keep-state' can not be used on
	    same rule.  Limit provides the same stateful function as
	    'keep-state' plus its own functions.</para>
	</sect4>
      </sect3>

      <sect3>
	<title>Stateful Rule Option</title>

	<indexterm>
	  <primary>IPFW</primary>

	  <secondary>stateful filtering</secondary>
	</indexterm>

	<!-- XXX: duplicated -->

	<para>Stateful filtering treats traffic as a bi-directional
	  exchange of packets comprising a session conversation.  It
	  has the interrogation abilities to determine if the session
	  conversation between the originating sender and the
	  destination are following the valid procedure of
	  bi-directional packet exchange.  Any packets that do not
	  properly fit the session conversation template are
	  automatically rejected as impostors.</para>

	<para>'check-state' is used to identify where in the IPFW rules
	  set the packet is to be tested against the dynamic rules
	  facility.  On a match the packet exits the firewall to
	  continue on its way and a new rule is dynamic created for
	  the next anticipated packet being exchanged during this
	  bi-directional session conversation.  On a no match the
	  packet advances to the next rule in the rule set for
	  testing.</para>

	<para>The dynamic rules facility is vulnerable to resource
	  depletion from a SYN-flood attack which would open a huge
	  number of dynamic rules.  To counter this attack, &os;
	  version 4.5 added another new option named limit.  This
	  option is used to limit the number of simultaneous session
	  conversations by interrogating the rules source or
	  destinations fields as directed by the limit option and
	  using the packet's IP address found there, in a search of
	  the open dynamic rules counting the number of times this
	  rule and IP address combination occurred, if this count is
	  greater that the value specified on the limit option, the
	  packet is discarded.</para>
      </sect3>

      <sect3>
	<title>Logging Firewall Messages</title>

	<indexterm>
	  <primary>IPFW</primary>

	  <secondary>logging</secondary>
	</indexterm>

	<para>The benefits of logging are obvious: it provides the
	  ability to review after the fact the rules you activated
	  logging on which provides information like, what packets had
	  been dropped, what addresses they came from, where they were
	  going, giving you a significant edge in tracking down
	  attackers.</para>

	<para>Even with the logging facility enabled, IPFW will not
	  generate any rule logging on it's own.  The firewall
	  administrator decides what rules in the rule set he wants
	  to log and adds the log verb to those rules.  Normally only
	  deny rules are logged, like the deny rule for incoming
	  <acronym>ICMP</acronym> pings.  It is very customary to
	  duplicate the ipfw default deny everything rule with the
	  log verb included as your last rule in the rule set.  This
	  way you get to see all the packets that did not match any
	  of the rules in the rule set.</para>

	<para>Logging is a two edged sword, if you are not careful, you
	  can lose yourself in the over abundance of log data and fill
	  your disk up with growing log files.  DoS attacks that fill
	  up disk drives is one of the oldest attacks around.  These
	  log message are not only written to syslogd, but also are
	  displayed on the root console screen and soon become very
	  annoying.</para>

	<para>The <literal>IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT=5</literal>
	  kernel option limits the number of consecutive messages
	  sent to the system logger syslogd, concerning the packet
	  matching of a given rule.  When this option is enabled in
	  the kernel, the number of consecutive messages concerning
	  a particular rule is capped at the number specified.  There
	  is nothing to be gained from 200 log messages saying the
	  same identical thing.  For instance, five consecutive
	  messages concerning a particular rule would be logged to
	  syslogd, the remainder identical consecutive messages would
	  be counted and posted to the syslogd with a phrase like
	  this:</para>

	<programlisting>last message repeated 45 times</programlisting>

	<para>All logged packets messages are written by default to
	  <filename>/var/log/security</filename> file, which is defined
	  in the <filename>/etc/syslog.conf</filename> file.</para>
      </sect3>

      <sect3 id="firewalls-ipfw-rules-script">
	<title>Building a Rule Script</title>

	<para>Most experienced IPFW users create a file containing the
	  rules and code them in a manner compatible with running them
	  as a script.  The major benefit of doing this is the firewall
	  rules can be refreshed in mass without the need of rebooting
	  the system to activate the new rules.  This method is very
	  convenient in testing new rules as the procedure can be
	  executed as many times as needed.  Being a script, you can
	  use symbolic substitution to code frequent used values and
	  substitution them in multiple rules.  You will see this in
	  the following example.</para>

	<para>The script syntax used here is compatible with the 'sh',
	  'csh', 'tcsh' shells.  Symbolic substitution fields are
	  prefixed with a dollar sign &dollar;.  Symbolic fields do not
	  have the &dollar; prefix.  The value to populate the Symbolic
	  field must be enclosed to "double quotes".</para>

	<para>Start your rules file like this:</para>

	<programlisting>############### start of example ipfw rules script #############
#
ipfw -q -f flush       # Delete all rules
# Set defaults
oif="tun0"             # out interface
odns="192.0.2.11"      # ISP's DNS server IP address
cmd="ipfw -q add "     # build rule prefix
ks="keep-state"        # just too lazy to key this each time
&dollar;cmd 00500 check-state
&dollar;cmd 00502 deny all from any to any frag
&dollar;cmd 00501 deny tcp from any to any established
&dollar;cmd 00600 allow tcp from any to any 80 out via &dollar;oif setup &dollar;ks
&dollar;cmd 00610 allow tcp from any to &dollar;odns 53 out via &dollar;oif setup &dollar;ks
&dollar;cmd 00611 allow udp from any to &dollar;odns 53 out via &dollar;oif &dollar;ks
################### End of example ipfw rules script ############</programlisting>

	<para>That is all there is to it.  The rules are not important
	  in this example, how the Symbolic substitution field are
	  populated and used are.</para>

	<para>If the above example was in
	  <filename>/etc/ipfw.rules</filename> file, you could reload
	  these rules by entering on the command line.</para>

	<screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>sh /etc/ipfw.rules</userinput></screen>

	<para>The <filename>/etc/ipfw.rules</filename> file could be
	  located anywhere you want and the file could be named any
	  thing you would like.</para>

	<para>The same thing could also be accomplished by running
	  these commands by hand:</para>

	<screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>ipfw -q -f flush</userinput>
&prompt.root; <userinput>ipfw -q add check-state</userinput>
&prompt.root; <userinput>ipfw -q add deny all from any to any frag</userinput>
&prompt.root; <userinput>ipfw -q add deny tcp from any to any established</userinput>
&prompt.root; <userinput>ipfw -q add allow tcp from any to any 80 out via tun0 setup keep-state</userinput>
&prompt.root; <userinput>ipfw -q add allow tcp from any to 192.0.2.11 53 out via tun0 setup keep-state</userinput>
&prompt.root; <userinput>ipfw -q add 00611 allow udp from any to 192.0.2.11 53 out via tun0 keep-state</userinput></screen>
      </sect3>

      <sect3>
	<title>Stateful Ruleset</title>

	<para>The following non-<acronym>NAT</acronym>ed rule set is an
	  example of how to code a very secure 'inclusive' type of
	  firewall.  An inclusive firewall only allows services
	  matching pass rules through and blocks all other by default.
	  All firewalls have at the minimum two interfaces which have
	  to have rules to allow the firewall to function.</para>

	<para>All &unix; flavored operating systems, &os; included, are
	  designed to use interface <devicename>lo0</devicename> and IP
	  address <hostid role="ipaddr">127.0.0.1</hostid> for internal
	  communication with in the operating system.  The firewall
	  rules must contain rules to allow free unmolested movement of
	  these special internally used packets.</para>

	<para>The interface which faces the public Internet, is the one
	  which you code your rules to authorize and control access out
	  to the public Internet and access requests arriving from the
	  public Internet.  This can be your ppp
	  <devicename>tun0</devicename> interface or your NIC that is
	  connected to your DSL or cable modem.</para>

	<para>In cases where one or more than one NIC are connected to
	  a private LANs behind the firewall, those interfaces must
	  have rules coded to allow free unmolested movement of
	  packets originating from those LAN interfaces.</para>

	<para>The rules should be first organized into three major
	  sections, all the free unmolested interfaces, public
	  interface outbound, and the public interface inbound.</para>

	<para>The order of the rules in each of the public interface
	  sections should be in order of the most used rules being
	  placed before less often used rules with the last rule in
	  the section being a block log all packets on that interface
	  and direction.</para>

	<para>The Outbound section in the following rule set only
	  contains 'allow' rules which contain selection values that
	  uniquely identify the service that is authorized for public
	  Internet access.  All the rules have the, proto, port,
	  in/out, via and keep state option coded.  The 'proto tcp'
	  rules have the 'setup' option included to identify the start
	  session request as the trigger packet to be posted to the
	  keep state stateful table.</para>

	<para>The Inbound section has all the blocking of undesirable
	  packets first for two different reasons.  First is these
	  things being blocked may be part of an otherwise valid packet
	  which may be allowed in by the later authorized service
	  rules.  Second reason is that by having a rule that
	  explicitly blocks selected packets that I receive on an
	  infrequent bases and do not want to see in the log, this
	  keeps them from being caught by the last rule in the section
	  which blocks and logs all packets which have fallen through
	  the rules.  The last rule in the section which blocks and
	  logs all packets is how you create the legal evidence needed
	  to prosecute the people who are attacking your system.</para>

	<para>Another thing you should take note of, is there is no
	  response returned for any of the undesirable stuff, their
	  packets just get dropped and vanish.  This way the attackers
	  has no knowledge if his packets have reached your system.
	  The less the attackers can learn about your system the more
	  secure it is.  When you log packets with port numbers you do
	  not recognize, look the numbers up in
	  <filename>/etc/services/</filename> or go to <ulink
	    url="http://www.securitystats.com/tools/portsearch.php"></ulink>
	  and do a port number lookup to find what the purpose of that
	  port number is.  Check out this link for port numbers used by
	  Trojans: <ulink
	    url="http://www.simovits.com/trojans/trojans.html"></ulink>.</para>
      </sect3>

      <sect3>
	<title>An Example Inclusive Ruleset</title>

	<para>The following non-<acronym>NAT</acronym>ed rule set is a
	  complete inclusive type ruleset.  You can not go wrong using
	  this rule set for you own.  Just comment out any pass rules
	  for services you do not want.  If you see messages in your
	  log that you want to stop seeing just add a deny rule in the
	  inbound section.  You have to change the 'dc0' interface name
	  in every rule to the interface name of the NIC that connects
	  your system to the public Internet.  For user ppp it would be
	  'tun0'.</para>

	<para>You will see a pattern in the usage of these
	  rules.</para>

	<itemizedlist>
	  <listitem>
	    <para>All statements that are a request to start a session
	      to the public Internet use keep-state.</para>
	  </listitem>

	  <listitem>
	    <para>All the authorized services that originate from the
	      public Internet have the limit option to stop
	      flooding.</para>
	  </listitem>

	  <listitem>
	    <para>All rules use in or out to clarify direction.</para>
	  </listitem>

	  <listitem>
	    <para>All rules use via interface name to specify the
	      interface the packet is traveling over.</para>
	  </listitem>
	</itemizedlist>

	<para>The following rules go into
	  <filename>/etc/ipfw.rules</filename>.</para>

	<programlisting>################ Start of IPFW rules file ###############################
# Flush out the list before we begin.
ipfw -q -f flush

# Set rules command prefix
cmd="ipfw -q add"
pif="dc0"     # public interface name of NIC
              # facing the public Internet

#################################################################
# No restrictions on Inside LAN Interface for private network
# Not needed unless you have LAN.
# Change xl0 to your LAN NIC interface name
#################################################################
#&dollar;cmd 00005 allow all from any to any via xl0

#################################################################
# No restrictions on Loopback Interface
#################################################################
&dollar;cmd 00010 allow all from any to any via lo0

#################################################################
# Allow the packet through if it has previous been added to the
# the "dynamic" rules table by a allow keep-state statement.
#################################################################
&dollar;cmd 00015 check-state

#################################################################
# Interface facing Public Internet (Outbound Section)
# Interrogate session start requests originating from behind the
# firewall on the private network or from this gateway server
# destine for the public Internet.
#################################################################

# Allow out access to my ISP's Domain name server.
# x.x.x.x must be the IP address of your ISP.s DNS
# Dup these lines if your ISP has more than one DNS server
# Get the IP addresses from /etc/resolv.conf file
&dollar;cmd 00110 allow tcp from any to x.x.x.x 53 out via &dollar;pif setup keep-state
&dollar;cmd 00111 allow udp from any to x.x.x.x 53 out via &dollar;pif keep-state

# Allow out access to my ISP's DHCP server for cable/DSL configurations.
# This rule is not needed for .user ppp. connection to the public Internet.
# so you can delete this whole group.
# Use the following rule and check log for IP address.
# Then put IP address in commented out rule & delete first rule
&dollar;cmd 00120 allow log udp from any to any 67 out via &dollar;pif keep-state
#&dollar;cmd 00120 allow udp from any to x.x.x.x 67 out via &dollar;pif keep-state

# Allow out non-secure standard www function
&dollar;cmd 00200 allow tcp from any to any 80 out via &dollar;pif setup keep-state

# Allow out secure www function https over TLS SSL
&dollar;cmd 00220 allow tcp from any to any 443 out via &dollar;pif setup keep-state

# Allow out send & get email function
&dollar;cmd 00230 allow tcp from any to any 25 out via &dollar;pif setup keep-state
&dollar;cmd 00231 allow tcp from any to any 110 out via &dollar;pif setup keep-state

# Allow out FBSD (make install & CVSUP) functions
# Basically give user root "GOD" privileges.
&dollar;cmd 00240 allow tcp from me to any out via &dollar;pif setup keep-state uid root

# Allow out ping
&dollar;cmd 00250 allow icmp from any to any out via &dollar;pif keep-state

# Allow out Time
&dollar;cmd 00260 allow tcp from any to any 37 out via &dollar;pif setup keep-state

# Allow out nntp news (i.e. news groups)
&dollar;cmd 00270 allow tcp from any to any 119 out via &dollar;pif setup keep-state

# Allow out secure FTP, Telnet, and SCP
# This function is using SSH (secure shell)
&dollar;cmd 00280 allow tcp from any to any 22 out via &dollar;pif setup keep-state

# Allow out whois
&dollar;cmd 00290 allow tcp from any to any 43 out via &dollar;pif setup keep-state

# deny and log everything else that.s trying to get out.
# This rule enforces the block all by default logic.
&dollar;cmd 00299 deny log all from any to any out via &dollar;pif

#################################################################
# Interface facing Public Internet (Inbound Section)
# Interrogate packets originating from the public Internet
# destine for this gateway server or the private network.
#################################################################

# Deny all inbound traffic from non-routable reserved address spaces
&dollar;cmd 00300 deny all from 192.168.0.0/16 to any in via &dollar;pif  #RFC 1918 private IP
&dollar;cmd 00301 deny all from 172.16.0.0/12 to any in via &dollar;pif     #RFC 1918 private IP
&dollar;cmd 00302 deny all from 10.0.0.0/8 to any in via &dollar;pif          #RFC 1918 private IP
&dollar;cmd 00303 deny all from 127.0.0.0/8 to any in via &dollar;pif        #loopback
&dollar;cmd 00304 deny all from 0.0.0.0/8 to any in via &dollar;pif            #loopback
&dollar;cmd 00305 deny all from 169.254.0.0/16 to any in via &dollar;pif   #DHCP auto-config
&dollar;cmd 00306 deny all from 192.0.2.0/24 to any in via &dollar;pif       #reserved for docs
&dollar;cmd 00307 deny all from 204.152.64.0/23 to any in via &dollar;pif  #Sun cluster interconnect
&dollar;cmd 00308 deny all from 224.0.0.0/3 to any in via &dollar;pif         #Class D & E multicast

# Deny public pings
&dollar;cmd 00310 deny icmp from any to any in via &dollar;pif

# Deny ident
&dollar;cmd 00315 deny tcp from any to any 113 in via &dollar;pif

# Deny all Netbios service. 137=name, 138=datagram, 139=session
# Netbios is MS/Windows sharing services.
# Block MS/Windows hosts2 name server requests 81
&dollar;cmd 00320 deny tcp from any to any 137 in via &dollar;pif
&dollar;cmd 00321 deny tcp from any to any 138 in via &dollar;pif
&dollar;cmd 00322 deny tcp from any to any 139 in via &dollar;pif
&dollar;cmd 00323 deny tcp from any to any 81 in via &dollar;pif

# Deny any late arriving packets
&dollar;cmd 00330 deny all from any to any frag in via &dollar;pif

# Deny ACK packets that did not match the dynamic rule table
&dollar;cmd 00332 deny tcp from any to any established in via &dollar;pif

# Allow traffic in from ISP's DHCP server. This rule must contain
# the IP address of your ISP.s DHCP server as it.s the only
# authorized source to send this packet type.
# Only necessary for cable or DSL configurations.
# This rule is not needed for .user ppp. type connection to
# the public Internet. This is the same IP address you captured
# and used in the outbound section.
#&dollar;cmd 00360 allow udp from any to x.x.x.x 67 in via &dollar;pif keep-state

# Allow in standard www function because I have apache server
&dollar;cmd 00400 allow tcp from any to me 80 in via &dollar;pif setup limit src-addr 2

# Allow in secure FTP, Telnet, and SCP from public Internet
&dollar;cmd 00410 allow tcp from any to me 22 in via &dollar;pif setup limit src-addr 2

# Allow in non-secure Telnet session from public Internet
# labeled non-secure because ID & PW are passed over public
# Internet as clear text.
# Delete this sample group if you do not have telnet server enabled.
&dollar;cmd 00420 allow tcp from any to me 23 in via &dollar;pif setup limit src-addr 2

# Reject & Log all incoming connections from the outside
&dollar;cmd 00499 deny log all from any to any in via &dollar;pif

# Everything else is denied by default
# deny and log all packets that fell through to see what they are
&dollar;cmd 00999 deny log all from any to any
################ End of IPFW rules file ###############################</programlisting>
      </sect3>

      <sect3>
	<title>An Example <acronym>NAT</acronym> and Stateful
	  Ruleset</title>

	<indexterm>
	  <primary>NAT</primary>

	  <secondary>and IPFW</secondary>
	</indexterm>

	<para>There are some additional configuration statements that
	  need to be enabled to activate the <acronym>NAT</acronym>
	  function of IPFW.  The kernel source needs 'option divert'
	  statement added to the other IPFIREWALL statements compiled
	  into a custom kernel.</para>

	<para>In addition to the normal IPFW options in
	  <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>, the following are
	  needed.</para>

	<programlisting>natd_enable="YES"                   # Enable <acronym>NAT</acronym>D function
natd_interface="rl0"                # interface name of public Internet NIC
natd_flags="-dynamic -m"            # -m = preserve port numbers if possible</programlisting>

	<para>Utilizing stateful rules with divert natd rule (Network
	  Address Translation) greatly complicates the rule set coding
	  logic.  The positioning of the check-state, and 'divert natd'
	  rules in the rule set becomes very critical.  This is no
	  longer a simple fall-through logic flow.  A new action type
	  is used, called 'skipto'.  To use the skipto command it is
	  mandatory that you number each rule so you know exactly
	  where the skipto rule number is you are really jumping
	  to.</para>

	<para>The following is an uncommented example of one coding
	  method, selected here to explain the sequence of the packet
	  flow through the rule sets.</para>

	<para>The processing flow starts with the first rule from the
	  top of the rule file and progress one rule at a time deeper
	  into the file until the end is reach or the packet being
	  tested to the selection criteria matches and the packet is
	  released out of the firewall.  It is important to take notice
	  of the location of rule numbers 100 101, 450, 500, and 510.
	  These rules control the translation of the outbound and
	  inbound packets so their entries in the keep-state dynamic
	  table always register the private LAN IP address.  Next
	  notice that all the allow and deny rules specified the
	  direction the packet is going (IE outbound or inbound) and
	  the interface.  Also notice that all the start outbound
	  session requests all skipto rule 500 for the network address
	  translation.</para>

	<para>Lets say a LAN user uses their web browser to get a web
	  page.  Web pages use port 80 to communicate over.  So the
	  packet enters the firewall, It does not match 100 because it
	  is headed out not in.  It passes rule 101 because this is the
	  first packet so it has not been posted to the keep-state
	  dynamic table yet.  The packet finally comes to rule 125 a
	  matches.  It is outbound through the NIC facing the public
	  Internet.  The packet still has it's source IP address as a
	  private LAN IP address.  On the match to this rule, two
	  actions take place.  The keep-state option will post this
	  rule into the keep-state dynamic rules table and the
	  specified action is executed.  The action is part of the info
	  posted to the dynamic table.  In this case it is "skipto rule
	  500".  Rule 500 <acronym>NAT</acronym>s the packet IP address
	  and out it goes.  Remember this, this is very important.
	  This packet makes its way to the destination and returns and
	  enters the top of the rule set.  This time it does match rule
	  100 and has it destination IP address mapped back to its
	  corresponding LAN IP address.  It then is processed by the
	  check-state rule, it's found in the table as an existing
	  session conversation and released to the LAN.  It goes to the
	  LAN PC that sent it and a new packet is sent requesting
	  another segment of the data from the remote server.  This
	  time it gets checked by the check-state rule and its outbound
	  entry is found,  the associated action, 'skipto 500', is
	  executed.  The packet jumps to rule 500 gets
	  <acronym>NAT</acronym>ed and released on it's way out.</para>

	<para>On the inbound side, everything coming in that is part
	  of an existing session conversation is being automatically
	  handled by the check-state rule and the properly placed
	  divert natd rules.  All we have to address is denying all the
	  bad packets and only allowing in the authorized services.
	  Lets say there is a apache server running on the firewall box
	  and we want people on the public Internet to be able to
	  access the local web site.  The new inbound start request
	  packet matches rule 100 and its IP address is mapped to LAN
	  IP for the firewall box.  The packet is them matched against
	  all the nasty things we want to check for and finally matches
	  against rule 425.  On a match two things occur.  The packet
	  rule is posted to the keep-state dynamic table but this time
	  any new session requests originating from that source IP
	  address is limited to 2.  This defends against DoS attacks of
	  service running on the specified port number.  The action is
	  allow so the packet is released to the LAN.  On return the
	  check-state rule recognizes the packet as belonging to an
	  existing session conversation sends it to rule 500 for
	  <acronym>NAT</acronym>ing and released to outbound
	  interface.</para>

	<para>Example Ruleset #1:</para>

	<programlisting>#!/bin/sh
cmd="ipfw -q add"
skip="skipto 500"
pif=rl0
ks="keep-state"
good_tcpo="22,25,37,43,53,80,443,110,119"

ipfw -q -f flush

&dollar;cmd 002 allow all from any to any via xl0  # exclude LAN traffic
&dollar;cmd 003 allow all from any to any via lo0  # exclude loopback traffic

&dollar;cmd 100 divert natd ip from any to any in via &dollar;pif
&dollar;cmd 101 check-state

# Authorized outbound packets
&dollar;cmd 120 &dollar;skip udp from any to xx.168.240.2 53 out via &dollar;pif &dollar;ks
&dollar;cmd 121 &dollar;skip udp from any to xx.168.240.5 53 out via &dollar;pif &dollar;ks
&dollar;cmd 125 &dollar;skip tcp from any to any &dollar;good_tcpo out via &dollar;pif setup &dollar;ks
&dollar;cmd 130 &dollar;skip icmp from any to any out via &dollar;pif &dollar;ks
&dollar;cmd 135 &dollar;skip udp from any to any 123 out via &dollar;pif &dollar;ks


# Deny all inbound traffic from non-routable reserved address spaces
&dollar;cmd 300 deny all from 192.168.0.0/16  to any in via &dollar;pif  #RFC 1918 private IP
&dollar;cmd 301 deny all from 172.16.0.0/12   to any in via &dollar;pif  #RFC 1918 private IP
&dollar;cmd 302 deny all from 10.0.0.0/8      to any in via &dollar;pif  #RFC 1918 private IP
&dollar;cmd 303 deny all from 127.0.0.0/8     to any in via &dollar;pif  #loopback
&dollar;cmd 304 deny all from 0.0.0.0/8       to any in via &dollar;pif  #loopback
&dollar;cmd 305 deny all from 169.254.0.0/16  to any in via &dollar;pif  #DHCP auto-config
&dollar;cmd 306 deny all from 192.0.2.0/24    to any in via &dollar;pif  #reserved for docs
&dollar;cmd 307 deny all from 204.152.64.0/23 to any in via &dollar;pif  #Sun cluster
&dollar;cmd 308 deny all from 224.0.0.0/3     to any in via &dollar;pif  #Class D & E multicast

# Authorized inbound packets
&dollar;cmd 400 allow udp from xx.70.207.54 to any 68 in &dollar;ks
&dollar;cmd 420 allow tcp from any to me 80 in via &dollar;pif setup limit src-addr 1


&dollar;cmd 450 deny log ip from any to any

# This is skipto location for outbound stateful rules
&dollar;cmd 500 divert natd ip from any to any out via &dollar;pif
&dollar;cmd 510 allow ip from any to any

######################## end of rules  ##################</programlisting>

	<para>The following is pretty much the same as above, but uses
	  a self documenting coding style full of description comments
	  to help the inexperienced IPFW rule writer to better
	  understand what the rules are doing.</para>

	<para>Example Ruleset #2:</para>

	<programlisting>#!/bin/sh
################ Start of IPFW rules file ###############################
# Flush out the list before we begin.
ipfw -q -f flush

# Set rules command prefix
cmd="ipfw -q add"
skip="skipto 800"
pif="rl0"     # public interface name of NIC
              # facing the public Internet

#################################################################
# No restrictions on Inside LAN Interface for private network
# Change xl0 to your LAN NIC interface name
#################################################################
&dollar;cmd 005 allow all from any to any via xl0

#################################################################
# No restrictions on Loopback Interface
#################################################################
&dollar;cmd 010 allow all from any to any via lo0

#################################################################
# check if packet is inbound and nat address if it is
#################################################################
&dollar;cmd 014 divert natd ip from any to any in via &dollar;pif

#################################################################
# Allow the packet through if it has previous been added to the
# the "dynamic" rules table by a allow keep-state statement.
#################################################################
&dollar;cmd 015 check-state

#################################################################
# Interface facing Public Internet (Outbound Section)
# Interrogate session start requests originating from behind the
# firewall on the private network or from this gateway server
# destine for the public Internet.
#################################################################

# Allow out access to my ISP's Domain name server.
# x.x.x.x must be the IP address of your ISP's DNS
# Dup these lines if your ISP has more than one DNS server
# Get the IP addresses from /etc/resolv.conf file
&dollar;cmd 020 &dollar;skip tcp from any to x.x.x.x 53 out via &dollar;pif setup keep-state


# Allow out access to my ISP's DHCP server for cable/DSL configurations.
&dollar;cmd 030 &dollar;skip udp from any to x.x.x.x 67 out via &dollar;pif keep-state

# Allow out non-secure standard www function
&dollar;cmd 040 &dollar;skip tcp from any to any 80 out via &dollar;pif setup keep-state

# Allow out secure www function https over TLS SSL
&dollar;cmd 050 &dollar;skip tcp from any to any 443 out via &dollar;pif setup keep-state

# Allow out send & get email function
&dollar;cmd 060 &dollar;skip tcp from any to any 25 out via &dollar;pif setup keep-state
&dollar;cmd 061 &dollar;skip tcp from any to any 110 out via &dollar;pif setup keep-state

# Allow out FreeBSD (make install & CVSUP) functions
# Basically give user root "GOD" privileges.
&dollar;cmd 070 &dollar;skip tcp from me to any out via &dollar;pif setup keep-state uid root

# Allow out ping
&dollar;cmd 080 &dollar;skip icmp from any to any out via &dollar;pif keep-state

# Allow out Time
&dollar;cmd 090 &dollar;skip tcp from any to any 37 out via &dollar;pif setup keep-state

# Allow out nntp news (i.e. news groups)
&dollar;cmd 100 &dollar;skip tcp from any to any 119 out via &dollar;pif setup keep-state

# Allow out secure FTP, Telnet, and SCP
# This function is using SSH (secure shell)
&dollar;cmd 110 &dollar;skip tcp from any to any 22 out via &dollar;pif setup keep-state

# Allow out whois
&dollar;cmd 120 &dollar;skip tcp from any to any 43 out via &dollar;pif setup keep-state

# Allow ntp time server
&dollar;cmd 130 &dollar;skip udp from any to any 123 out via &dollar;pif keep-state

#################################################################
# Interface facing Public Internet (Inbound Section)
# Interrogate packets originating from the public Internet
# destine for this gateway server or the private network.
#################################################################

# Deny all inbound traffic from non-routable reserved address spaces
&dollar;cmd 300 deny all from 192.168.0.0/16  to any in via &dollar;pif  #RFC 1918 private IP
&dollar;cmd 301 deny all from 172.16.0.0/12   to any in via &dollar;pif  #RFC 1918 private IP
&dollar;cmd 302 deny all from 10.0.0.0/8      to any in via &dollar;pif  #RFC 1918 private IP
&dollar;cmd 303 deny all from 127.0.0.0/8     to any in via &dollar;pif  #loopback
&dollar;cmd 304 deny all from 0.0.0.0/8       to any in via &dollar;pif  #loopback
&dollar;cmd 305 deny all from 169.254.0.0/16  to any in via &dollar;pif  #DHCP auto-config
&dollar;cmd 306 deny all from 192.0.2.0/24    to any in via &dollar;pif  #reserved for docs
&dollar;cmd 307 deny all from 204.152.64.0/23 to any in via &dollar;pif  #Sun cluster
&dollar;cmd 308 deny all from 224.0.0.0/3     to any in via &dollar;pif  #Class D & E multicast

# Deny ident
&dollar;cmd 315 deny tcp from any to any 113 in via &dollar;pif

# Deny all Netbios service. 137=name, 138=datagram, 139=session
# Netbios is MS/Windows sharing services.
# Block MS/Windows hosts2 name server requests 81
&dollar;cmd 320 deny tcp from any to any 137 in via &dollar;pif
&dollar;cmd 321 deny tcp from any to any 138 in via &dollar;pif
&dollar;cmd 322 deny tcp from any to any 139 in via &dollar;pif
&dollar;cmd 323 deny tcp from any to any 81  in via &dollar;pif

# Deny any late arriving packets
&dollar;cmd 330 deny all from any to any frag in via &dollar;pif

# Deny ACK packets that did not match the dynamic rule table
&dollar;cmd 332 deny tcp from any to any established in via &dollar;pif

# Allow traffic in from ISP's DHCP server. This rule must contain
# the IP address of your ISP's DHCP server as it's the only
# authorized source to send this packet type.
# Only necessary for cable or DSL configurations.
# This rule is not needed for 'user ppp' type connection to
# the public Internet. This is the same IP address you captured
# and used in the outbound section.
&dollar;cmd 360 allow udp from x.x.x.x to any 68 in via &dollar;pif keep-state

# Allow in standard www function because I have Apache server
&dollar;cmd 370 allow tcp from any to me 80 in via &dollar;pif setup limit src-addr 2

# Allow in secure FTP, Telnet, and SCP from public Internet
&dollar;cmd 380 allow tcp from any to me 22 in via &dollar;pif setup limit src-addr 2

# Allow in non-secure Telnet session from public Internet
# labeled non-secure because ID & PW are passed over public
# Internet as clear text.
# Delete this sample group if you do not have telnet server enabled.
&dollar;cmd 390 allow tcp from any to me 23 in via &dollar;pif setup limit src-addr 2

# Reject & Log all unauthorized incoming connections from the public Internet
&dollar;cmd 400 deny log all from any to any in via &dollar;pif

# Reject & Log all unauthorized out going connections to the public Internet
&dollar;cmd 450 deny log all from any to any out via &dollar;pif

# This is skipto location for outbound stateful rules
&dollar;cmd 800 divert natd ip from any to any out via &dollar;pif
&dollar;cmd 801 allow ip from any to any

# Everything else is denied by default
# deny and log all packets that fell through to see what they are
&dollar;cmd 999 deny log all from any to any
################ End of IPFW rules file ###############################</programlisting>
      </sect3>
    </sect2>
  </sect1>
</chapter>

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