diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/basics/chapter.xml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/basics/chapter.xml index 9a0cd1e429..f7a1b6c5cd 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/basics/chapter.xml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/basics/chapter.xml @@ -93,8 +93,8 @@ console - Unless &os; has been configured to automatically start - a graphical environment during startup, the system will boot + Unless &os; has been configured to automatically start a + graphical environment during startup, the system will boot into a command line login prompt, as seen in this example: @@ -102,10 +102,10 @@ login: - The first line contains some information about the - system. The amd64 indicates that the - system in this example is running a 64-bit version of &os;. - The hostname is pc3.example.org, and + The first line contains some information about the system. + The amd64 indicates that the system in this + example is running a 64-bit version of &os;. The hostname is + pc3.example.org, and ttyv0 indicates that this is the system console. @@ -116,10 +116,10 @@ login: Logging into &os; - &os; is a multiuser, multiprocessing system. This is - the formal description that is usually given to a system that - can be used by many different people, who simultaneously run a - lot of programs on a single machine. + &os; is a multiuser, multiprocessing system. This is the + formal description that is usually given to a system that can + be used by many different people, who simultaneously run a lot + of programs on a single machine. Every multiuser system needs some way to distinguish one user from the rest. In &os; (and all the @@ -127,9 +127,8 @@ login: requiring that every user must log into the system before being able to run programs. Every user has a unique name (the username) and a personal, - secret key (the password). &os; will ask - for these two before allowing a user to run any - programs. + secret key (the password). &os; will ask for + these two before allowing a user to run any programs. startup scripts When a &os; system boots, startup scripts are @@ -141,8 +140,8 @@ login: login: Type the username that was configured during system - installation, as described in , and press + installation, as described in + , and press Enter. Then enter the password associated with the username and press Enter. The password is not echoed for security @@ -270,8 +269,8 @@ console none unknown off secure &prompt.root; vidcontrol -i mode - The output of this command lists the video modes that - are supported by the hardware. To select a new video mode, + The output of this command lists the video modes that are + supported by the hardware. To select a new video mode, specify the mode using &man.vidcontrol.1; as the root user: @@ -290,9 +289,9 @@ console none unknown off secure UNIX - &os;, being a direct descendant of BSD &unix;, is based - on several key &unix; concepts. The first and most pronounced - is that &os; is a multi-user operating system that can handle + &os;, being a direct descendant of BSD &unix;, is based on + several key &unix; concepts. The first and most pronounced is + that &os; is a multi-user operating system that can handle several users working simultaneously on completely unrelated tasks. The system is responsible for properly sharing and managing requests for hardware devices, peripherals, memory, and @@ -300,12 +299,12 @@ console none unknown off secure Much more information about user accounts is in the chapter about accounts. It is important to - understand that each person (user) who uses the computer should be - given their own username and password. The system keeps track - of the people using the computer based on this username. Since - it is often the case that several people are working on the same - project &unix; also provides groups. Several users can be placed - in the same group. + understand that each person (user) who uses the computer should + be given their own username and password. The system keeps + track of the people using the computer based on this username. + Since it is often the case that several people are working on + the same project &unix; also provides groups. Several users can + be placed in the same group. Because the system is capable of supporting multiple users, everything the system manages has a set of permissions governing @@ -317,9 +316,10 @@ console none unknown off secure This section will discuss the traditional &unix; - permissions. For finer grained file system access - control, see the File System - Access Control Lists section. + permissions. For finer grained file system access control, + see the + File System Access Control Lists + section. permissions @@ -387,6 +387,7 @@ console none unknown off secure + &man.ls.1; @@ -1022,9 +1023,9 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 I+ 2:09AM 0:00.01 passwd class="directory">/var/ Multi-purpose log, temporary, transient, and spool files. A memory-based file system is sometimes - mounted at /var. This can be - automated using the varmfs-related variables in + mounted at + /var. This can + be automated using the varmfs-related variables in &man.rc.conf.5; or with an entry in /etc/fstab; refer to &man.mdmfs.8; for details. @@ -1053,8 +1054,8 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 I+ 2:09AM 0:00.01 passwd /var/tmp/ Temporary files which are usually preserved - across a system reboot, unless /var is a + across a system reboot, unless + /var is a memory-based file system. @@ -1087,8 +1088,8 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 I+ 2:09AM 0:00.01 passwd Files and directories are referenced by giving the file or directory name, followed by a forward slash, /, followed by any other directory names that - are necessary. For example, if the directory foo contains a directory + are necessary. For example, if the directory + foo contains a directory bar which contains the file readme.txt, the full name, or path, to the file is @@ -1103,11 +1104,12 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 I+ 2:09AM 0:00.01 passwd file system contains exactly one directory at the very top level, called the root directory for that file system. This root directory can contain other directories. - One file system is designated the root file - system or /. Every other file - system is mounted under the root file - system. No matter how many disks are on the &os; system, every - directory appears to be part of the same disk. + One file system is designated the + root file system or /. + Every other file system is mounted under + the root file system. No matter how many disks are on the &os; + system, every directory appears to be part of the same + disk. Consider three file systems, called A, B, and C. Each file @@ -1163,10 +1165,10 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 I+ 2:09AM 0:00.01 passwd Any files that are in the B1 or B2 directories can be reached with the path - /A1/B1 or /A1/B2 as necessary. Any files - that were in /A1 have - been temporarily hidden. They will reappear if + /A1/B1 or + /A1/B2 as necessary. Any + files that were in /A1 + have been temporarily hidden. They will reappear if B is unmounted from A. @@ -1193,8 +1195,9 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 I+ 2:09AM 0:00.01 passwd and the paths would be - /A2/B1 and /A2/B2 respectively. + /A2/B1 and + /A2/B2 + respectively. File systems can be mounted on top of one another. Continuing the last example, the C file @@ -1262,9 +1265,9 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 I+ 2:09AM 0:00.01 passwd mount options. For example, the root file system can be mounted read-only, making it impossible for users to inadvertently delete or edit a critical file. - Separating user-writable file systems, such as /home, from other file - systems allows them to be mounted + Separating user-writable file systems, such as + /home, from other + file systems allows them to be mounted nosuid. This option prevents the suid/guid bits on executables stored on the file system from taking effect, @@ -1282,11 +1285,11 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 I+ 2:09AM 0:00.01 passwd &os;'s file systems are robust if power is lost. - However, a power loss at a critical point could still - damage the structure of the file system. By splitting - data over multiple file systems it is more likely that the - system will still come up, making it easier to restore from - backup as necessary. + However, a power loss at a critical point could still damage + the structure of the file system. By splitting data over + multiple file systems it is more likely that the system will + still come up, making it easier to restore from backup as + necessary. @@ -1302,9 +1305,9 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 I+ 2:09AM 0:00.01 passwd restoring the backed up data. - &os; features the &man.growfs.8; command, which - makes it possible to increase the size of file system on - the fly, removing this limitation. + &os; features the &man.growfs.8; command, which makes + it possible to increase the size of file system on the + fly, removing this limitation. @@ -1319,8 +1322,8 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 I+ 2:09AM 0:00.01 passwd point in the file system hierarchy, or the letter of the partition they are contained in. - &os; also uses disk space for swap - space to provide + &os; also uses disk space for + swap space to provide virtual memory. This allows your computer to behave as though it has much more memory than it actually does. When &os; runs out of memory, it moves some of @@ -1360,8 +1363,7 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 I+ 2:09AM 0:00.01 passwd This allows utilities that need to work on the entire slice, such as a bad block scanner, to work on the c partition. A file system would not - normally be - created on this partition. + normally be created on this partition. @@ -1377,8 +1379,8 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 I+ 2:09AM 0:00.01 passwd Disks in &os; are divided into slices, referred to in &windows; as partitions, which are numbered from 1 to 4. These - are then divided into partitions, which contain file - systems, and are labeled using letters. + are then divided into partitions, which contain file systems, + and are labeled using letters. slices partitions @@ -1401,21 +1403,22 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 I+ 2:09AM 0:00.01 passwd letter is appended to the device name, so da0a is the a partition on the first - da drive, which is dangerously - dedicated. ad1s3e - is the fifth partition in the third slice of the second IDE - disk drive. + da drive, which is + dangerously dedicated. + ad1s3e is the fifth + partition in the third slice of the second IDE disk + drive. Finally, each disk on the system is identified. A disk name starts with a code that indicates the type of disk, and then a number, indicating which disk it is. Unlike slices, disk - numbering starts at 0. Common codes are listed in . + numbering starts at 0. Common codes are listed in + . When referring to a partition, include the disk name, s, the slice number, and then the partition - letter. Examples are shown in . + letter. Examples are shown in + . shows a conceptual model of a disk layout. @@ -1493,7 +1496,6 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 I+ 2:09AM 0:00.01 passwd da1s2e - The fifth partition (e) on the second slice (s2) on the second SCSI disk (da1). @@ -1511,15 +1513,15 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 I+ 2:09AM 0:00.01 passwd size, and contains two 2 GB slices (&ms-dos; partitions). The first slice contains a &ms-dos; disk, C:, and the second slice contains a - &os; installation. This example &os; installation has - three data partitions, and a swap partition. + &os; installation. This example &os; installation has three + data partitions, and a swap partition. The three partitions will each hold a file system. Partition a will be used for the root file - system, e for the /var/ directory hierarchy, and - f for the /usr/ directory + system, e for the + /var/ directory + hierarchy, and f for the + /usr/ directory hierarchy. @@ -1562,29 +1564,31 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 I+ 2:09AM 0:00.01 passwd Mounting and Unmounting File Systems - The file system is best visualized as a tree, - rooted, as it were, at /. - /dev, /usr, and the other directories - in the root directory are branches, which may have their own - branches, such as /usr/local, and so on. + The file system is best visualized as a tree, rooted, as it + were, at /. + /dev, + /usr, and the other + directories in the root directory are branches, which may have + their own branches, such as + /usr/local, and so + on. root file system There are various reasons to house some of these - directories on separate file systems. /var contains the directories - log/, + directories on separate file systems. + /var contains the + directories log/, spool/, and various types of temporary files, and as such, may get filled up. Filling up - the root file system is not a good idea, so splitting /var from / is often favorable. + the root file system is not a good idea, so splitting + /var from + / is often + favorable. Another common reason to contain certain directory trees on other file systems is if they are to be housed on separate physical disks, or are separate virtual disks, such as Network - File System mounts, described in , + File System mounts, described in , or CDROM drives. @@ -1595,8 +1599,8 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 I+ 2:09AM 0:00.01 passwd mounted with fstab - During the boot process (), - file systems listed in /etc/fstab are + During the boot process (), file + systems listed in /etc/fstab are automatically mounted except for the entries containing . This file contains entries in the following format: @@ -2128,8 +2132,8 @@ Swap: 256M Total, 38M Used, 217M Free, 15% Inuse foo.bar, type rm fo[Tab].[Tab]. - The shell should print out rm - foo[BEEP].bar. + The shell should print out + rm foo[BEEP].bar. The [BEEP] is the console bell, which the shell used to indicate it was unable to complete the filename because there @@ -2252,10 +2256,10 @@ Swap: 256M Total, 38M Used, 217M Free, 15% Inuse as special representations of data. The most common meta-character is *, which represents any number of characters in a filename. Meta-characters can be - used to perform filename globbing. For example, echo - * is equivalent to &man.ls.1; because the shell - takes all the files that match * and - &man.echo.1; lists them on the command line. + used to perform filename globbing. For example, + echo * is equivalent to &man.ls.1; because + the shell takes all the files that match * + and &man.echo.1; lists them on the command line. To prevent the shell from interpreting a special character, escape it from the shell by starting it with a backslash @@ -2325,9 +2329,9 @@ Swap: 256M Total, 38M Used, 217M Free, 15% Inuse Ctrl, so ^e expands to Ctrle. - To leave &man.ee.1;, press Esc, then choose - the leave editor option from the main menu. - The editor will prompt to save any changes if the file has been + To leave &man.ee.1;, press Esc, then choose the + leave editor option from the main menu. The + editor will prompt to save any changes if the file has been modified. @@ -2468,8 +2472,8 @@ Swap: 256M Total, 38M Used, 217M Free, 15% Inuse keyword mail in their descriptions. This is equivalent to using &man.apropos.1;. - To determine what the commands in /usr/bin do, + To determine what the commands in + /usr/bin do, type: &prompt.user; cd /usr/bin @@ -2493,9 +2497,10 @@ Swap: 256M Total, 38M Used, 217M Free, 15% Inuse by the Free Software Foundation (FSF). In addition to manual pages, these programs may include hypertext documents called info files. These can be viewed using - &man.info.1; or, if editors/emacs is installed, the - info mode of emacs. + &man.info.1; or, if + editors/emacs is + installed, the info mode of + emacs. To use &man.info.1;, type: