os/doc
3
0
Fork 0
Code Issues Pull requests Projects Releases Wiki Activity
doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/book.sgml
Nik Clayton a497ab6892 After an extended absence (quit job, set up company, get girlfriend, get 
contract, start contract, work too many hours per day) I'm back working
on the DocBook conversion :-)

Create two new entities, prompt.root and prompt.user. Use these where the
user is shown an OS prompt, to indicate whether they should be a normal
user or do it as root.

Everything else that looks like a prompt (e.g., C:\> which occurs here
and there) is also marked up as <prompt>.
1998-10-01 06:11:44 +00:00

36426 lines
1.4 MiB
Raw Blame History

<!DOCTYPE BOOK PUBLIC "-//FreeBSD//DTD DocBook V3.0-Based Extension//EN" [
<!ENTITY prompt.root "<prompt>#</prompt>">
<!ENTITY prompt.user "<prompt>%</prompt>">
]>
<book>
<bookinfo>
<bookbiblio>
<title>FreeBSD Handbook</title>
<authorgroup>
<author>
<surname>The FreeBSD Documentation Project</surname>
</author>
</authorgroup>
<pubdate>March 1998</pubdate>
<abstract><para>Welcome to FreeBSD! This handbook covers the
installation and day to day use of <emphasis remap=bf>FreeBSD
Release &rel.current;</emphasis>. This manual is a <emphasis
remap=bf>work in progress</emphasis> and is the work of many
individuals. Many sections do not yet exist and some of those that
do exist need to be updated. If you are interested in helping with
this project, send email to the &a.doc; The latest version of this
document is always available from the <ulink
URL="http://www.FreeBSD.ORG/">FreeBSD World Wide Web
server</ulink>. It may also be downloaded in plain text,
postscript or HTML from the <ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD/docs">FreeBSD FTP
server</ulink> or one of the numerous
<xref linkend="mirrors-ftp" remap="mirror sites">. You may also
want to <ulink URL="/search.html">Search the Handbook</ulink>.
</para></abstract>
</bookbiblio>
</bookinfo>
<part>
<title>Getting Started</title>
<chapter>
<title>Introduction</title>
<para>FreeBSD is a 4.4BSD-Lite based operating system for Intel
architecture (x86) based PCs. For an overview of FreeBSD, see
<xref linkend="nutshell" remap="FreeBSD in a nutshell">. For a
history of the project, read <xref linkend="history" remap="a brief
history of FreeBSD">. To see a description of the latest release,
read <xref linkend="relnotes" remap="about the current
release">. If you're interested in contributing something to the
FreeBSD project (code, equipment, sacks of unmarked bills), please see
about <xref linkend="contrib"
remap="contributing to FreeBSD">.</para>
<sect1
id="nutshell">
<title>FreeBSD in a Nutshell</title>
<para>FreeBSD is a state of the art operating system for personal
computers based on the Intel CPU architecture, which includes the
386, 486 and Pentium processors (both SX and DX versions). Intel
compatible CPUs from AMD and Cyrix are supported as well. FreeBSD
provides you with many advanced features previously available only
on much more expensive computers. These features include:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Preemptive multitasking</emphasis> with
dynamic priority adjustment to ensure smooth and fair sharing
of the computer between applications and users.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Multiuser</emphasis> access means that
many people can use a FreeBSD system simultaneously for a
variety of things. System peripherals such as printers and
tape drives are also properly SHARED BETWEEN ALL users on the
system.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Complete <emphasis remap=bf>TCP/IP networking</emphasis>
including SLIP, PPP, NFS and NIS support. This means that
your FreeBSD machine can inter-operate easily with other
systems as well act as an enterprise server, providing vital
functions such as NFS (remote file access) and e-mail services
or putting your organization on the Internet with WWW, ftp,
routing and firewall (security) services.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Memory protection</emphasis> ensures
that applications (or users) cannot interfere with each other.
One application crashing will not affect others in any
way.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>FreeBSD is a <emphasis remap=bf>32-bit</emphasis>
operating system and was designed as such from the ground
up.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>The industry standard <emphasis remap=bf>X Window
System</emphasis> (X11R6) provides a graphical user
interface (GUI) for the cost of a common VGA card and monitor
and comes with full sources.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Binary compatibility</emphasis> with
many programs built for SCO, BSDI, NetBSD, Linux and
386BSD.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Hundreds of <emphasis remap=bf>ready-to-run</emphasis>
applications are available from the FreeBSD <emphasis
remap=bf>ports</emphasis> and <emphasis
remap=bf>packages</emphasis> collection. Why search the net
when you can find it all right here?</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Thousands of additional and <emphasis
remap=bf>easy-to-port</emphasis> applications available on
the Internet. FreeBSD is source code compatible with most
popular commercial Unix systems and thus most applications
require few, if any, changes to compile.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Demand paged <emphasis remap=bf>virtual memory</emphasis>
and <quote>merged VM/buffer cache</quote> design efficiently satisfies
applications with large appetites for memory while still
maintaining interactive response to other users.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Shared libraries</emphasis> (the Unix
equivalent of MS-Windows DLLs) provide for efficient use of
disk space and memory.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>A full compliment of <emphasis remap=bf>C</emphasis>,
<emphasis remap=bf>C++</emphasis> and <emphasis
remap=bf>Fortran</emphasis> development tools. Many
additional languages for advanced research and development are
also available in the ports and packages collection.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Source code</emphasis> for the entire
system means you have the greatest degree of control over your
environment. Why be locked into a proprietary solution and at
the mercy of your vendor when you can have a truly Open
System?</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Extensive <emphasis remap=bf>on-line
documentation</emphasis>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>And many more!</emphasis></para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>FreeBSD is based on the 4.4BSD-Lite release from Computer
Systems Research Group (CSRG) at the University of California at
Berkeley, and carries on the distinguished tradition of BSD systems
development. In addition to the fine work provided by CSRG, the
FreeBSD Project has put in many thousands of hours in fine tuning
the system for maximum performance and reliability in real-life load
situations. As many of the commercial giants struggle to field PC
operating systems with such features, performance and reliability,
FreeBSD can offer them <emphasis remap=bf>now</emphasis>!</para>
<para>The applications to which FreeBSD can be put are truly limited
only by your own imagination. From software development to factory
automation, inventory control to azimuth correction of remote
satellite antennae; if it can be done with a commercial UNIX product
then it is more than likely that you can do it with FreeBSD, too!
FreeBSD also benefits significantly from the literally thousands of
high quality applications developed by research centers and
universities around the world, often available at little to no cost.
Commercial applications are also available and appearing in greater
numbers every day.</para>
<para>Because the source code for FreeBSD itself is generally
available, the system can also be customized to an almost unheard of
degree for special applications or projects, and in ways not
generally possible with operating systems from most major commercial
vendors. Here is just a sampling of some of the applications in
which people are currently using FreeBSD:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Internet Services:</emphasis> The
robust TCP/IP networking built into FreeBSD makes it an ideal
platform for a variety of Internet services such as:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>FTP servers</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>World Wide Web servers</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Gopher servers</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Electronic Mail servers</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>USENET News</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Bulletin Board Systems</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>And more...</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist> You can easily start out small with an
inexpensive 386 class PC and upgrade as your enterprise
grows.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Education:</emphasis> Are you a student
of computer science or a related engineering field? There is
no better way of learning about operating systems, computer
architecture and networking than the hands on, under the hood
experience that FreeBSD can provide. A number of freely
available CAD, mathematical and graphic design packages also
make it highly useful to those whose primary interest in a
computer is to get <emphasis>other</emphasis> work
done!</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Research:</emphasis> With source code
for the entire system available, FreeBSD is an excellent
platform for research in operating systems as well as other
branches of computer science. FreeBSD's freely available
nature also makes it possible for remote groups to collaborate
on ideas or shared development without having to worry about
special licensing agreements or limitations on what may be
discussed in open forums.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Networking:</emphasis> Need a new
router? A name server (DNS)? A firewall to keep people out
of your internal network? FreeBSD can easily turn that unused
386 or 486 PC sitting in the corner into an advanced router
with sophisticated packet filtering capabilities. </para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>X Window workstation:</emphasis>
FreeBSD is a fine choice for an inexpensive X terminal
solution, either using the freely available XFree86 server or
one of the excellent commercial servers provided by X Inside.
Unlike an X terminal, FreeBSD allows many applications to be
run locally, if desired, thus relieving the burden on a
central server. FreeBSD can even boot <quote>diskless</quote>, making
individual workstations even cheaper and easier to
administer.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Software Development:</emphasis> The
basic FreeBSD system comes with a full compliment of
development tools including the renowned GNU C/C++ compiler
and debugger. </para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>FreeBSD is available in both source and binary form on CDROM and
via anonymous ftp. See <xref linkend="mirrors" remap="Obtaining
FreeBSD"> for more details.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="history">
<title>A Brief History of FreeBSD</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.jkh;</emphasis>.</para>
<para>The FreeBSD project had its genesis in the early part of 1993,
partially as an outgrowth of the <quote>Unofficial 386BSD Patchkit</quote> by the
patchkit's last 3 coordinators: Nate Williams, Rod Grimes and
myself.</para>
<para>Our original goal was to produce an intermediate snapshot of
386BSD in order to fix a number of problems with it that the
patchkit mechanism just was not capable of solving. Some of you may
remember the early working title for the project being <QUOTE>386BSD 0.5</QUOTE>
or <quote>386BSD Interim</quote> in reference to that fact.</para>
<para>386BSD was Bill Jolitz's operating system, which had been up to
that point suffering rather severely from almost a year's worth of
neglect. As the patchkit swelled ever more uncomfortably with each
passing day, we were in unanimous agreement that something had to be
done and decided to try and assist Bill by providing this interim
<quote>cleanup</quote> snapshot. Those plans came to a rude halt when Bill
Jolitz suddenly decided to withdraw his sanction from the project
and without any clear indication of what would be done
instead.</para>
<para>It did not take us long to decide that the goal remained
worthwhile, even without Bill's support, and so we adopted the name
<quote>FreeBSD</quote>, coined by David Greenman. Our initial objectives were
set after consulting with the system's current users and, once it
became clear that the project was on the road to perhaps even
becoming a reality, I contacted Walnut Creek CDROM with an eye
towards improving FreeBSD's distribution channels for those many
unfortunates without easy access to the Internet. Walnut Creek
CDROM not only supported the idea of distributing FreeBSD on CD but
went so far as to provide the project with a machine to work on and
a fast Internet connection. Without Walnut Creek CDROM's almost
unprecedented degree of faith in what was, at the time, a completely
unknown project, it is quite unlikely that FreeBSD would have gotten
as far, as fast, as it has today.</para>
<para>The first CDROM (and general net-wide) distribution was FreeBSD
1.0, released in December of 1993. This was based on the
4.3BSD-Lite (<quote>Net/2</quote>) tape from U.C. Berkeley, with many components
also provided by 386BSD and the Free Software Foundation. It was a
fairly reasonable success for a first offering, and we followed it
with the highly successful FreeBSD 1.1 release in May of
1994.</para>
<para>Around this time, some rather unexpected storm clouds formed on
the horizon as Novell and U.C. Berkeley settled their long-running
lawsuit over the legal status of the Berkeley Net/2 tape. A
condition of that settlement was U.C. Berkeley's concession that
large parts of Net/2 were <quote>encumbered</quote> code and the property of
Novell, who had in turn acquired it from AT&amp;T some time
previously. What Berkeley got in return was Novell's <quote>blessing</quote>
that the 4.4BSD-Lite release, when it was finally released, would be
declared unencumbered and all existing Net/2 users would be strongly
encouraged to switch. This included FreeBSD, and the project was
given until the end of July 1994 to stop shipping its own Net/2
based product. Under the terms of that agreement, the project was
allowed one last release before the deadline, that release being
FreeBSD 1.1.5.1.</para>
<para>FreeBSD then set about the arduous task of literally
re-inventing itself from a completely new and rather incomplete set
of 4.4BSD-Lite bits. The <quote>Lite</quote> releases were light in part because
Berkeley's CSRG had removed large chunks of code required for
actually constructing a bootable running system (due to various
legal requirements) and the fact that the Intel port of 4.4 was
highly incomplete. It took the project until December of 1994 to
make this transition, and in January of 1995 it released FreeBSD 2.0
to the net and on CDROM. Despite being still more than a little
rough around the edges, the release was a significant success and
was followed by the more robust and easier to install FreeBSD 2.0.5
release in June of 1995.</para>
<para>We released FreeBSD 2.1.5 in August of 1996, and it appeared to
be popular enough among the ISP and commercial communities that
another release along the 2.1-stable branch was merited. This was
FreeBSD 2.1.7.1, released in February 1997 and capping the end of
mainstream development on 2.1-stable. Now in maintenance mode, only
security enhancements and other critical bug fixes will be done on
this branch (RELENG_2_1_0).</para>
<para>FreeBSD 2.2 was branched from the development mainline
(<quote>-current</quote>) in November 1996 as the RELENG_2_2 branch, and the
first full release (2.2.1) was released in April, 1997. Further
releases along the 2.2 branch were done in the Summer and Fall of
'97, the latest being 2.2.6 which appeared in late March of '98.
The first official 3.0 release will appear later in 1998.</para>
<para>Long term development projects for everything from SMP to DEC
ALPHA support will continue to take place in the 3.0-current branch
and SNAPshot releases of 3.0 on CDROM (and, of course, on the net).
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="goals">
<title>FreeBSD Project Goals</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.jkh;</emphasis>.</para>
<para>The goals of the FreeBSD Project are to provide software that
may be used for any purpose and without strings attached. Many of
us have a significant investment in the code (and project) and would
certainly not mind a little financial compensation now and then, but
we're definitely not prepared to insist on it. We believe that our
first and foremost <quote>mission</quote> is to provide code to any and all
comers, and for whatever purpose, so that the code gets the widest
possible use and provides the widest possible benefit. This is, I
believe, one of the most fundamental goals of Free Software and one
that we enthusiastically support.</para>
<para>That code in our source tree which falls under the GNU Public
License (GPL) or GNU Library Public License (GLPL) comes with
slightly more strings attached, though at least on the side of
enforced access rather than the usual opposite. Due to the
additional complexities that can evolve in the commercial use of GPL
software, we do, however, endeavor to replace such software with
submissions under the more relaxed BSD copyright whenever possible.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="development">
<title>The FreeBSD Development Model</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.asami;</emphasis>.</para>
<para>The development of FreeBSD is a very open and flexible process,
FreeBSD being literally built from the contributions of hundreds of
people around the world, as can be seen from our <xref
linkend="staff" remap="list of contributors">. We are constantly
on the lookout for new developers and ideas, and those interested in
becoming more closely involved with the project need simply contact
us at the &a.hackers;. Those who prefer to work more independently
are also accommodated, and they are free to use our FTP facilities
at <ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/incoming">ftp.freebsd.org</ulink> to distribute their own patches or work-in-progress sources. The &a.announce; is also available to those wishing to make other FreeBSD users aware of major areas of work.</para>
<para>Useful things to know about the FreeBSD project and its
development process, whether working independently or in close
cooperation:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis remap=bf>The CVS
repository</emphasis><anchor
id="development-cvs-repository"></term>
<listitem>
<para>The central source tree for FreeBSD is maintained by
<ulink
URL="http://www.cyclic.com/cyclic-pages/CVS-sheet.html">CVS</ulink> (Concurrent Version System), a freely available source code control tool which comes bundled with FreeBSD. The primary <ulink URL="http://www.freebsd.org/cgi/cvsweb.cgi">CVS repository</ulink> resides on a machine in Concord CA, USA from where it is replicated to numerous mirror machines throughout the world. The CVS tree, as well as the <xref linkend="current" remap="-current"> and <xref
linkend="stable" remap="-stable"> trees which are checked
out of it, can be easily replicated to your own machine as
well. Please refer to the
<xref linkend="synching" remap="Synchronizing your source
tree"> section for more information on doing this.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis remap=bf>The committers
list</emphasis><anchor id="development-committers"></term>
<listitem>
<para>The <xref linkend="staff-committers" remap="committers">
are the people who have <emphasis>write</emphasis> access to
the CVS tree, and are thus authorized to make modifications
to the FreeBSD source (the term <quote>committer</quote> comes from the
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>cvs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> <command>commit</command> command, which is used to
bring new changes into the CVS repository). The best way of
making submissions for review by the committers list is to
use the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>send-pr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> command, though if something appears to be jammed in the system then you may also reach them by sending mail to <ulink URL="mailto:committers@freebsd.org">committers@freebsd.org</ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis remap=bf>The FreeBSD core
team</emphasis><anchor id="development-core"></term>
<listitem>
<para>The <xref linkend="staff-core" remap="FreeBSD core
team"> would be equivalent to the board of directors if
the FreeBSD Project were a company. The primary task of the
core team is to make sure the project, as a whole, is in
good shape and is heading in the right directions. Inviting
dedicated and responsible developers to join our group of
committers is one of the functions of the core team, as is
the recruitment of new core team members as others move on.
Most current members of the core team started as committers
who's addiction to the project got the better of
them.</para>
<para>Some core team members also have specific <xref
linkend="staff-who" remap="areas of responsibility">,
meaning that they are committed to ensuring that some large
portion of the system works as advertised.</para>
<note>
<para>Most members of the core team are volunteers when it
comes to FreeBSD development and do not benefit from the
project financially, so <quote>commitment</quote> should also not be
misconstrued as meaning <quote>guaranteed support.</quote> The
<quote>board of directors</quote> analogy above is not
actually very accurate, and it may be more suitable to say
that these are the people who gave up their lives in favor
of FreeBSD against their better judgement! <emphasis
remap=tt>;)</emphasis></para>
</note>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis remap=bf>Outside
contributors</emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Last, but definitely not least, the largest group of
developers are the users themselves who provide feedback and
bug-fixes to us on an almost constant basis. The primary
way of keeping in touch with FreeBSD's more non-centralized
development is to subscribe to the &a.hackers; (see <xref
linkend="eresources-mail" remap="mailing list
info">) where such things are discussed.</para>
<para><xref linkend="contrib-additional" remap="The list"> of
those who have contributed something which made its way into
our source tree is a long and growing one, so why not join
it by contributing something back to FreeBSD today?
<emphasis remap=tt>:-)</emphasis></para>
<para>Providing code is not the only way of contributing to
the project; for a more complete list of things that need
doing, please refer to the <xref linkend="contrib"
remap="how to
contribute"> section in this handbook.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>In summary, our development model is organized as a loose set of
concentric circles. The centralized model is designed for the
convenience of the <emphasis>users</emphasis> of FreeBSD, who are
thereby provided with an easy way of tracking one central code base,
not to keep potential contributors out! Our desire is to present a
stable operating system with a large set of coherent <xref
linkend="ports"
remap="application programs"> that the users can easily install
and use, and this model works very well in accomplishing
that.</para>
<para>All we ask of those who would join us as FreeBSD developers is
some of the same dedication its current people have to its continued
success!
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="relnotes">
<title>About the Current Release</title>
<para>FreeBSD is a freely available, full source 4.4BSD-Lite based
release for Intel i386/i486/Pentium/PentiumPro/Pentium II (or
compatible) based PC's. It is based primarily on software from U.C.
Berkeley's CSRG group, with some enhancements from NetBSD, OpenBSD,
386BSD, and the Free Software Foundation.</para>
<para>Since our release of FreeBSD 2.0 in January of 95, the
performance, feature set, and stability of FreeBSD has improved
dramatically. The largest change is a revamped virtual memory
system with a merged VM/file buffer cache that not only increases
performance, but reduces FreeBSD's memory footprint, making a 5MB
configuration a more acceptable minimum. Other enhancements include
full NIS client and server support, transaction TCP support,
dial-on-demand PPP, an improved SCSI subsystem, early ISDN support,
support for FDDI and Fast Ethernet (100Mbit) adapters, improved
support for the Adaptec 2940 (WIDE and narrow) and many hundreds of
bug fixes.</para>
<para>We have also taken the comments and suggestions of many of our
users to heart and have attempted to provide what we hope is a more
sane and easily understood installation process. Your feedback on
this (constantly evolving) process is especially welcome!</para>
<para>In addition to the base distributions, FreeBSD offers a new
ported software collection with hundreds of commonly sought-after
programs. At the end of March 1998 there were more than 1300 ports!
The list of ports ranges from http (WWW) servers, to games,
languages, editors and almost everything in between. The entire
ports collection requires approximately 26MB of storage, all ports
being expressed as <quote>deltas</quote> to their original sources. This
makes it much easier for us to update ports, and greatly reduces
the disk space demands made by the older 1.0 ports collection. To
compile a port, you simply change to the directory of the program
you wish to install, type <command>make all</command> followed by <command>make install</command>
after successful compilation and let the system do the rest. The
full original distribution for each port you build is retrieved
dynamically off the CDROM or a local ftp site, so you need only
enough disk space to build the ports you want. (Almost) every port
is also provided as a pre-compiled <quote>package</quote> which can be installed
with a simple command (pkg_add) by those who do not wish to compile
their own ports from source.</para>
<para>A number of additional documents which you may find very helpful
in the process of installing and using FreeBSD may now also be found
in the <filename>/usr/share/doc</filename> directory on any machine
running FreeBSD 2.1 or later. You may view the locally installed
manuals with any HTML capable browser using the following
URLs:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>The FreeBSD handbook</term>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="file:/usr/share/doc/handbook/handbook.html">file:/usr/share/doc/handbook/handbook.html</ulink></para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>The FreeBSD FAQ</term>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="file:/usr/share/doc/FAQ/FAQ.html">file:/usr/share/doc/FAQ/FAQ.html</ulink></para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>You can also visit the master (and most frequently updated)
copies at <ulink
URL="http://www.freebsd.org">http://www.freebsd.org</ulink>.</para>
<para>The core of FreeBSD does not contain DES code which would
inhibit its being exported outside the United States. There is an
add-on package to the core distribution, for use only in the United
States, that contains the programs that normally use DES. The
auxiliary packages provided separately can be used by anyone. A
freely (from outside the U.S.) exportable European distribution of
DES for our non-U.S. users also exists and is described in the
<ulink URL="../FAQ/FAQ.html">FreeBSD FAQ</ulink>.</para>
<para>If password security for FreeBSD is all you need, and you have
no requirement for copying encrypted passwords from different hosts
(Suns, DEC machines, etc) into FreeBSD password entries, then
FreeBSD's MD5 based security may be all you require! We feel that
our default security model is more than a match for DES, and without
any messy export issues to deal with. If you are outside (or even
inside) the U.S., give it a try!</para>
</sect1>
</chapter>
<chapter
id="install">
<title>Installing FreeBSD</title>
<para>So, you would like to try out FreeBSD on your system? This section
is a quick-start guide for what you need to do. FreeBSD can be
installed from a variety of media including CD-ROM, floppy disk,
magnetic tape, an MS-DOS partition and, if you have a network
connection, via anonymous ftp or NFS. </para>
<para>Regardless of the installation media you choose, you can get
started by creating the <emphasis remap=bf>installation
disk</emphasis> as described below. Booting your computer into the
FreeBSD installer, even if you aren't planning on installing FreeBSD
right away, will provide important information about compatibility
between FreeBSD and your hardware which may, in turn, dictate which
installation options are even possible. It can also provide early
clues to any compatibility problems which could prevent FreeBSD
running on your system at all. If you plan on installing via
anonymous FTP then this installation disk is all you need to download
(the installation will handle any further required downloading
itself).</para>
<para>For more information on obtaining the latest FreeBSD
distributions, please see <xref linkend="mirrors" remap="Obtaining
FreeBSD"> in the
Appendix.</para>
<para>So, to get the show on the road, follow these steps:
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Review the <xref linkend="install-hw" remap="supported
configurations"> section of this installation guide to be sure
that your hardware is supported by FreeBSD. It may be helpful
to make a list of any special cards you have installed, such as
SCSI controllers, Ethernet adapters or sound cards. This list
should include relevant configuration parameters such as
interrupts (IRQ) and IO port addresses.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If you're installing FreeBSD from CDROM media then you have
several different installation options:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>If the CD has been mastered with El Torrito boot
support and your system supports direct booting from CDROM
(and many older systems do <emphasis>not</emphasis>),
simply insert the CD into the drive and boot directly from
it.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If you're running DOS and have the proper drivers to
access your CD, run the install.bat script provided on the
CD. This will attempt to boot into the FreeBSD
installation straight from DOS.</para>
<note>
<para>You must do this from actual DOS and not a Windows
DOS box.</para>
</note>
<para>If you also want to install FreeBSD
from your DOS partition (perhaps because your CDROM drive
is completely unsupported by FreeBSD) then run the setup
program first to copy the appropriate files from the CD to
your DOS partition, afterwards running install.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If either of the two proceeding methods work then you
can simply skip the rest of this section, otherwise your
final option is to create a boot floppy from the
<filename>floppies\boot.flp</filename> image - proceed to
step 4 for instructions on how to do this.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If you don't have a CDROM distribution then simply download
the <ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD/&rel.current;-RELEASE/floppies/boot.flp">installation boot disk image</ulink> file to your hard drive, being sure to tell your browser to <emphasis>save</emphasis> rather than <emphasis>display</emphasis> the file.</para>
<note>
<para>This disk image can only be used with 1.44 megabyte 3.5
inch floppy disks.</para>
</note>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Make the installation boot disk from the image file:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>If you are using MS-DOS then download <ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD/tools/fdimage.exe">fdimage.exe</ulink> or get it from <filename>tools\fdimage.exe</filename> on the CDROM and then run it like so:
<informalexample>
<screen><prompt>E:\&gt;</prompt> tools\fdimage floppies\boot.flp
a:</screen>
</informalexample> The <emphasis>fdimage</emphasis>
program will format the A: drive and then copy the
boot.flp image onto it (assuming that you're at the top
level of a FreeBSD distribution and the floppy images live
in the floppies subdirectory, as is typically the
case).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If you are using a UNIX system to create the floppy
image:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; dd if=boot.flp
of=<symbol>disk_device</symbol></screen>
</informalexample> where <symbol>disk_device</symbol> is
the <filename>/dev</filename> entry for the floppy drive.
On FreeBSD systems, this is <filename>/dev/rfd0</filename>
for the A: drive and <filename>/dev/rfd1</filename> for
the B: drive.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>With the installation disk in the A: drive, reboot your
computer. You should get a boot prompt something like this:
<informalexample>
<screen>&gt;&gt; FreeBSD BOOT ...<!-- <br> --> Usage:
[[[0:][wd](0,a)]/kernel][-abcCdhrsv]<!-- <br> --> Use
1:sd(0,a)kernel to boot sd0 if it is BIOS drive 1<!-- <br>
--> Use ? for file list or press Enter for defaults<!-- <br>
--> Boot: </screen>
</informalexample> If you do <emphasis>not</emphasis> type
anything, FreeBSD will automatically boot with its default
configuration after a delay of about five seconds. As FreeBSD
boots, it probes your computer to determine what hardware is
installed. The results of this probing is displayed on the
screen.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>When the booting process is finished, The main FreeBSD
installation menu will be displayed.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>If something goes wrong...</emphasis></para>
<para>Due to limitations of the PC architecture, it is impossible for
probing to be 100 percent reliable. In the event that your hardware
is incorrectly identified, or that the probing causes your computer to
lock up, first check the
<xref linkend="install-hw" remap="supported configurations">
section of this installation guide to be sure that your hardware is
indeed supported by FreeBSD. </para>
<para>If your hardware is supported, reset the computer and when the
<emphasis remap=tt>Boot:</emphasis> prompt comes up, type
<option>-c</option>. This puts FreeBSD into a configuration mode
where you can supply hints about your hardware. The FreeBSD kernel on
the installation disk is configured assuming that most hardware
devices are in their factory default configuration in terms of IRQs,
IO addresses and DMA channels. If your hardware has been
reconfigured, you will most likely need to use the <option>-c</option>
option at boot to tell FreeBSD where things are.</para>
<para>It is also possible that a probe for a device not present will
cause a later probe for another device that is present to fail. In
that case, the probes for the conflicting driver(s) should be
disabled.</para>
<para>In the configuration mode, you can:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>List the device drivers installed in the kernel.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Disable device drivers for hardware not present in your
system.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Change the IRQ, DRQ, and IO port addresses used by a device
driver.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>While at the <emphasis remap=tt>config&gt;</emphasis> prompt, type
<command>help</command> for more information on the
available commands. After adjusting the kernel to match how you have
your hardware configured, type <command>quit</command> at
the <emphasis remap=tt>config&gt;</emphasis> prompt to continue
booting with the new settings. </para>
<para>After FreeBSD has been installed, changes made in the
configuration mode will be permanent so you do not have to reconfigure
every time you boot. Even so, it is likely that you will want to
build a custom kernel to optimize the performance of your system. See
<xref linkend="kernelconfig"
remap="Kernel configuration"> for more information on creating
custom kernels.</para>
<sect1
id="install-hw">
<title>Supported Configurations</title>
<para>FreeBSD currently runs on a wide variety of ISA, VLB, EISA and
PCI bus based PC's, ranging from 386sx to Pentium class machines
(though the 386sx is not recommended). Support for generic IDE or
ESDI drive configurations, various SCSI controller, network and
serial cards is also provided.</para>
<para>A minimum of four megabytes of RAM is required to run FreeBSD.
To run the X Window System, eight megabytes of RAM is the
recommended minimum.</para>
<para>Following is a list of all disk controllers and Ethernet cards
currently known to work with FreeBSD. Other configurations may very
well work, and we have simply not received any indication of
this.</para>
<sect2>
<title>Disk Controllers</title>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>WD1003 (any generic MFM/RLL)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>WD1007 (any generic IDE/ESDI)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>IDE</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>ATA
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Adaptec 1505 ISA SCSI controller</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Adaptec 152x series ISA SCSI controllers</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Adaptec 1535 ISA SCSI controllers</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Adaptec 154x series ISA SCSI controllers</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Adaptec 174x series EISA SCSI controller in standard and
enhanced mode.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Adaptec 274x/284x/2940/2940U/3940 (Narrow/Wide/Twin)
series EISA/VLB/PCI SCSI controllers</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Adaptec AIC7850 on-board SCSI controllers</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Adaptec AIC-6360 based boards, which includes the
AHA-152x and SoundBlaster SCSI cards.</para>
<note>
<para>You cannot boot from the
SoundBlaster cards as they have no on-board BIOS, which is
necessary for mapping the boot device into the system BIOS
I/O vectors. They are perfectly usable for external tapes,
CDROMs, etc, however. The same goes for any other AIC-6x60
based card without a boot ROM. Some systems DO have a boot
ROM, which is generally indicated by some sort of message
when the system is first powered up or reset. Check your
system/board documentation for more details.</para>
</note>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Buslogic 545S &amp; 545c</para>
<note>
<para>Buslogic was formerly known as <quote>Bustek</quote>.</para>
</note>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Buslogic 445S/445c VLB SCSI controller</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Buslogic 742A/747S/747c EISA SCSI controller.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Buslogic 946c PCI SCSI controller</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Buslogic 956c PCI SCSI controller
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>NCR 53C810/53C815/53C825/53C860/53C875 PCI SCSI
controller.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>NCR5380/NCR53400 (<quote>ProAudio Spectrum</quote>) SCSI
controller.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>DTC 3290 EISA SCSI controller in 1542 emulation mode.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>UltraStor 14F/24F/34F SCSI controllers.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Seagate ST01/02 SCSI controllers.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Future Domain 8xx/950 series SCSI controllers.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>WD7000 SCSI controllers.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>With all supported SCSI controllers, full support is provided
for SCSI-I &amp; SCSI-II peripherals, including Disks, tape drives
(including DAT) and CD ROM drives.</para>
<para>The following CD-ROM type systems are supported at this
time:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>SoundBlaster SCSI and ProAudio Spectrum SCSI (<literal>cd</literal>)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Mitsumi (all models) proprietary interface (<literal>mcd</literal>)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Matsushita/Panasonic (Creative) CR-562/CR-563
proprietary interface (<literal>matcd</literal>)
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Sony proprietary interface (<literal>scd</literal>)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>ATAPI IDE interface (experimental and should be
considered ALPHA quality!) (<literal>wcd</literal>)</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="install-nics">
<title>Ethernet cards</title>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Allied-Telesis AT1700 and RE2000 cards
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>SMC Elite 16 WD8013 Ethernet interface, and most other
WD8003E, WD8003EBT, WD8003W, WD8013W, WD8003S, WD8003SBT and
WD8013EBT based clones. SMC Elite Ultra and 9432TX based
cards are also supported.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>DEC EtherWORKS III NICs (DE203, DE204, and DE205)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>DEC EtherWORKS II NICs (DE200, DE201, DE202, and
DE422)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>DEC DC21040/DC21041/DC21140 based NICs:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>ASUS PCI-L101-TB</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Accton ENI1203</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Cogent EM960PCI</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Compex CPXPCI/32C</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>D-Link DE-530</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>DEC DE435</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Danpex EN-9400P3</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>JCIS Condor JC1260</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Kingston KNE100TX</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Linksys EtherPCI</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Mylex LNP101</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>SMC EtherPower 10/100 (Model 9332)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>SMC EtherPower (Model 8432)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>SMC EtherPower (2)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Zynx ZX314</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Zynx ZX342</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>DEC FDDI (DEFPA/DEFEA) NICs
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Fujitsu FMV-181 and FMV-182
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Fujitsu MB86960A/MB86965A
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Intel EtherExpress
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Intel EtherExpress Pro/100B 100Mbit.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Isolan AT 4141-0 (16 bit)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Isolink 4110 (8 bit)
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Lucent WaveLAN wireless networking interface.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Novell NE1000, NE2000, and NE2100 ethernet interface.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>3Com 3C501 cards
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>3Com 3C503 Etherlink II
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>3Com 3c505 Etherlink/+
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>3Com 3C507 Etherlink 16/TP
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>3Com 3C509, 3C579, 3C589 (PCMCIA) Etherlink III
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>3Com 3C590, 3C595 Etherlink III
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>3Com 3C90x cards.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>HP PC Lan Plus (27247B and 27252A)
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Toshiba ethernet cards
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>PCMCIA ethernet cards from IBM and National
Semiconductor are also supported.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<note>
<para>FreeBSD does not currently support
PnP (plug-n-play) features present on some ethernet cards. If
your card has PnP and is giving you problems, try disabling its
PnP features.</para>
</note>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="install-misc">
<title>Miscellaneous devices</title>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>AST 4 port serial card using shared IRQ.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>ARNET 8 port serial card using shared IRQ.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>BOCA IOAT66 6 port serial card using shared IRQ.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>BOCA 2016 16 port serial card using shared IRQ.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Cyclades Cyclom-y Serial Board.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>STB 4 port card using shared IRQ.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>SDL Communications Riscom/8 Serial Board.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>SDL Communications RISCom/N2 and N2pci sync serial
cards.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Digiboard Sync/570i high-speed sync serial card.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Decision-Computer Intl. <quote>Eight-Serial</quote> 8 port serial
cards using shared IRQ.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Adlib, SoundBlaster, SoundBlaster Pro, ProAudioSpectrum,
Gravis UltraSound, Gravis UltraSound MAX and Roland MPU-401
sound cards.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Matrox Meteor video frame grabber.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Creative Labs Video spigot frame grabber.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Omnimedia Talisman frame grabber.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Brooktree BT848 chip based frame grabbers.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>X-10 power controllers.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>PC joystick and speaker.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>FreeBSD does not currently support IBM's microchannel (MCA)
bus.</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Preparing for the Installation</title>
<para>There are a number of different methods by which FreeBSD can be
installed. The following describes what preparation needs to be
done for each type.</para>
<sect2>
<title>Before installing from CDROM</title>
<para>If your CDROM is of an unsupported type, then please skip to
<xref linkend="install-msdos" remap="MS-DOS
Preparation">.</para>
<para>There is not a lot of preparatory work that needs to be done
to successfully install from one of Walnut Creek's FreeBSD CDROMs
(other CDROM distributions may work as well, though we cannot say
for certain as we have no hand or say in how they are created).
You can either boot into the CD installation directly from DOS
using Walnut Creek's supplied <filename>install.bat</filename> batch file or you
can make a boot floppy with the <filename>makeflp.bat</filename> command.</para>
<note>
<para>If you are running FreeBSD 2.1-RELEASE and have an IDE
CDROM, use the inst_ide.bat or atapiflp.bat batch files
instead.</para>
</note>
<para>For the easiest interface of all (from DOS), type <command>view</command>.
This will bring up a DOS menu utility that leads you through all
the available options.</para>
<para>If you are creating the boot floppy from a UNIX machine, see
<xref linkend="install" remap="the beginning of this
guide"> for examples. of how to create the boot floppy.</para>
<para>Once you have booted from DOS or floppy, you should then be
able to select CDROM as the media type in the Media menu and load
the entire distribution from CDROM. No other types of
installation media should be required.</para>
<para>After your system is fully installed and you have rebooted
from the hard disk, you can mount the CDROM at any time by typing:
<command>mount /cdrom</command></para>
<para>Before removing the CD again, also note that it is necessary
to first type: <command>umount /cdrom</command>. Do not just
remove it from the drive!</para>
<note>
<para>Before invoking the installation, be sure that the CDROM is
in the drive so that the install probe can find it. This is
also true if you wish the CDROM to be added to the default
system configuration automatically during the install (whether
or not you actually use it as the installation media).</para>
</note>
<para>Finally, if you would like people to be able to FTP install
FreeBSD directly from the CDROM in your machine, you will find it
quite easy. After the machine is fully installed, you simply need
to add the following line to the password file (using the vipw
command):</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>ftp:*:99:99::0:0:FTP:/cdrom:/nonexistent</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Anyone with network connectivity to your machine (and
permission to log into it) can now chose a Media type of FTP and
type in: <filename>ftp://<replaceable>your
machine</replaceable></filename> after picking <quote>Other</quote> in
the ftp sites menu.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Before installing from Floppy</title>
<para>If you must install from floppy disks, either due to
unsupported hardware or simply because you enjoy doing things the
hard way, you must first prepare some floppies for the
install.</para>
<para>You will need, at minimum, as many 1.44MB or 1.2MB floppies as
it takes to hold all files in the bin (binary distribution)
directory. If you are preparing these floppies under DOS, then
THESE floppies *must* be formatted using the MS-DOS FORMAT
command. If you are using Windows, use the Windows File Manager
format command.</para>
<para>Do <emphasis>not</emphasis> trust Factory Preformatted
floppies! Format them again yourself, just to make sure. Many
problems reported by our users in the past have resulted from the
use of improperly formatted media, which is why I am taking such
special care to mention it here!</para>
<para>If you are creating the floppies from another FreeBSD machine,
a format is still not a bad idea though you do not need to put a
DOS filesystem on each floppy. You can use the <command>disklabel</command> and
<command>newfs</command> commands to put a UFS filesystem on them instead, as the
following sequence of commands (for a 3.5" 1.44MB floppy disk)
illustrates:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; fdformat -f 1440 fd0.1440 disklabel -w -r
fd0.1440 floppy3 newfs -t 2 -u 18 -l 1 -i 65536 /dev/rfd0 (Use
"fd0.1200" and "floppy5" for 5.25" 1.2MB disks).</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Then you can mount and write to them like any other file
system.</para>
<para>After you have formatted the floppies, you will need to copy
the files onto them. The distribution files are split into chunks
conveniently sized so that 5 of them will fit on a conventional
1.44MB floppy. Go through all your floppies, packing as many
files as will fit on each one, until you have got all the
distributions you want packed up in this fashion. Each
distribution should go into a subdirectory on the floppy, e.g.:
<filename>a:\bin\bin.aa</filename>,
<filename>a:\bin\bin.ab</filename>, and so on.</para>
<para>Once you come to the Media screen of the install, select
<quote>Floppy</quote> and you will be prompted for the rest.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="install-msdos">
<title>Before installing from a MS-DOS partition</title>
<para>To prepare for installation from an MS-DOS partition, copy the
files from the distribution into a directory called
<filename>C:\FREEBSD</filename>. The directory tree structure of
the CDROM must be partially reproduced within this directory so we
suggest using the DOS <command>xcopy</command> command.
For example, to prepare for a minimal installation of FreeBSD:
<informalexample>
<screen><prompt>C&gt;</prompt> MD C:\FREEBSD C&gt; XCOPY /S E:\BIN
C:\FREEBSD\BIN\ <prompt>C&gt;</prompt> XCOPY /S E:\MANPAGES
C:\FREEBSD\MANPAGES\</screen>
</informalexample> assuming that <filename>C:</filename>
is where you have free space and <filename>E:</filename>
is where your CDROM is mounted.</para>
<para>For as many <abbrev>DISTS</abbrev> you wish to install from MS-DOS (and you
have free space for), install each one under
<filename>C:\FREEBSD</filename> - the <abbrev>BIN</abbrev> dist
is only the minimal requirement.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Before installing from QIC/SCSI Tape</title>
<para>Installing from tape is probably the easiest method, short of
an on-line install using FTP or a CDROM install. The installation
program expects the files to be simply tar'ed onto the tape, so
after getting all of the files for distribution you are interested
in, simply tar them onto the tape with a command like:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; cd /freebsd/distdir<!-- <br> --> tar cvf /dev/rwt0 (or
/dev/rst0) dist1 .. dist2</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>When you go to do the installation, you should also make sure
that you leave enough room in some temporary directory (which you
will be allowed to choose) to accommodate the <emphasis
remap=bf>full</emphasis> contents of the tape you have created.
Due to the non-random access nature of tapes, this method of
installation requires quite a bit of temporary storage. You
should expect to require as much temporary storage as you have
stuff written on tape.</para>
<note>
<para>When going to do the installation, the tape must be in the
drive <emphasis>before</emphasis> booting from the boot floppy.
The installation probe may otherwise fail to find it.</para>
</note>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Before installing over a network</title>
<para>You can do network installations over 3 types of
communications links:
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>Serial port</term>
<listitem>
<para>SLIP or PPP </para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Parallel port</term>
<listitem>
<para>PLIP (laplink cable) </para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Ethernet</term>
<listitem>
<para>A standard ethernet controller (includes some
PCMCIA).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>SLIP support is rather primitive, and limited primarily to
hard-wired links, such as a serial cable running between a laptop
computer and another computer. The link should be hard-wired as
the SLIP installation does not currently offer a dialing
capability; that facility is provided with the PPP utility, which
should be used in preference to SLIP whenever possible.</para>
<para>If you are using a modem, then PPP is almost certainly your
only choice. Make sure that you have your service provider's
information handy as you will need to know it fairly soon in the
installation process. You will need to know how to dial your ISP
using the <quote>AT commands</quote> specific to your modem, as the PPP
dialer provides only a very simple terminal emulator. If you're
using PAP or CHAP, you'll need to type the necessary <command>set
authname</command> and <command>set authkey</command> commands before typing <command>term</command>.
Refer to the user-ppp <xref linkend="userppp" remap="handbook">
and <ulink URL="../FAQ/userppp.html">FAQ</ulink> entries for
further information. If you have problems, logging can be
directed to the screen using the command <command>set
log local ...</command>.</para>
<para>If a hard-wired connection to another FreeBSD (2.0R or later)
machine is available, you might also consider installing over a
<quote>laplink</quote> parallel port cable. The data rate over the parallel
port is much higher than what is typically possible over a serial
line (up to 50k/sec), thus resulting in a quicker
installation.</para>
<para>Finally, for the fastest possible network installation, an
ethernet adaptor is always a good choice! FreeBSD supports most
common PC ethernet cards, a table of supported cards (and their
required settings) is provided in <xref linkend="install-hw"
remap="Supported
Hardware">. If you are using one of the supported PCMCIA
ethernet cards, also be sure that it is plugged in
<emphasis>before</emphasis> the laptop is powered on! FreeBSD
does not, unfortunately, currently support hot insertion of PCMCIA
cards during installation.</para>
<para>You will also need to know your IP address on the network, the
netmask value for your address class, and the name of your
machine. Your system administrator can tell you which values to
use for your particular network setup. If you will be referring
to other hosts by name rather than IP address, you will also need
a name server and possibly the address of a gateway (if you are
using PPP, it is your provider's IP address) to use in talking to
it. If you do not know the answers to all or most of these
questions, then you should really probably talk to your system
administrator <emphasis>first</emphasis> before trying this type
of installation.</para>
<para>Once you have a network link of some sort working, the
installation can continue over NFS or FTP.</para>
<sect3>
<title>Preparing for NFS installation</title>
<para>NFS installation is fairly straight-forward: Simply copy the
FreeBSD distribution files you want onto a server somewhere and
then point the NFS media selection at it.</para>
<para>If this server supports only <quote>privileged port</quote> access (as
is generally the default for Sun workstations), you will need to
set this option in the Options menu before installation can
proceed.</para>
<para>If you have a poor quality ethernet card which suffers from
very slow transfer rates, you may also wish to toggle the
appropriate Options flag.</para>
<para>In order for NFS installation to work, the server must
support subdir mounts, e.g., if your FreeBSD &rel.current;
distribution directory lives on:
<filename>ziggy:/usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD</filename> Then ziggy
will have to allow the direct mounting of
<filename>/usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD</filename>, not just
<filename>/usr</filename> or
<filename>/usr/archive/stuff</filename>.</para>
<para>In FreeBSD's <filename>/etc/exports</filename> file, this is
controlled by the <option>-alldirs</option> option. Other
NFS servers may have different conventions. If you are getting
<errortype>Permission Denied</errortype> messages from the server then it is likely
that you do not have this enabled properly.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Preparing for FTP Installation</title>
<para>FTP installation may be done from any mirror site containing
a reasonably up-to-date version of FreeBSD &rel.current;. A
full menu of reasonable choices from almost anywhere in the
world is provided by the FTP site menu.</para>
<para>If you are installing from some other FTP site not listed in
this menu, or you are having troubles getting your name server
configured properly, you can also specify your own URL by
selecting the <quote>Other</quote> choice in that menu. A URL can also be
a direct IP address, so the following would work in the absence
of a name server:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>ftp://165.113.121.81/pub/FreeBSD/&rel.current;-RELEASE</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>There are two FTP installation modes you can use:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>FTP Active</term>
<listitem>
<para>For all FTP transfers, use <quote>Active</quote> mode. This
will not work through firewalls, but will often work
with older ftp servers that do not support passive mode.
If your connection hangs with passive mode (the
default), try active!</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FTP Passive</term>
<listitem>
<para>For all FTP transfers, use <quote>Passive</quote> mode. This
allows the user to pass through firewalls that do not
allow incoming connections on random port
addresses.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<note>
<para>Active and passive modes are not the same as a <quote>proxy</quote>
connection, where a proxy FTP server is listening and
forwarding FTP requests!</para>
</note>
<para>For a proxy FTP server, you should usually give name of the
server you really want as a part of the username, after an
@-sign. The proxy server then 'fakes' the real server. An
example: Say you want to install from ftp.freebsd.org, using the
proxy FTP server foo.bar.com, listening on port 1234.</para>
<para>In this case, you go to the options menu, set the FTP
username to ftp@ftp.freebsd.org, and the password to your e-mail
address. As your installation media, you specify FTP (or
passive FTP, if the proxy support it), and the URL
<informalexample>
<screen>ftp://foo.bar.com:1234/pub/FreeBSD</screen>
</informalexample> /pub/FreeBSD from ftp.freebsd.org is proxied
under foo.bar.com, allowing you to install from _that_ machine
(which fetch the files from ftp.freebsd.org as your installation
requests them).</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Installing FreeBSD</title>
<para>Once you have taken note of the appropriate preinstallation
steps, you should be able to install FreeBSD without any further
trouble.</para>
<para>Should this not be true, then you may wish to go back and
re-read the relevant preparation section above for the installation
media type you are trying to use, perhaps there is a helpful hint
there that you missed the first time? If you are having hardware
trouble, or FreeBSD refuses to boot at all, read the Hardware Guide
provided on the boot floppy for a list of possible solutions.</para>
<para>The FreeBSD boot floppy contains all the on-line documentation
you should need to be able to navigate through an installation and
if it does not then we would like to know what you found most
confusing. Send your comments to the &a.doc;. It is the objective
of the FreeBSD installation program (sysinstall) to be
self-documenting enough that painful <quote>step-by-step</quote> guides are no
longer necessary. It may take us a little while to reach that
objective, but that is the objective!</para>
<para>Meanwhile, you may also find the following <quote>typical
installation sequence</quote> to be helpful:</para>
<para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Boot the boot floppy. After a boot sequence which can
take anywhere from 30 seconds to 3 minutes, depending on your
hardware, you should be presented with a menu of initial
choices. If the floppy does not boot at all, or the boot
hangs at some stage, go read the Q&amp;A section of the
Hardware Guide for possible causes.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Press F1. You should see some basic usage instructions on
the menu system and general navigation. If you have not used
this menu system before then PLEASE read this thoroughly!
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Select the Options item and set any special preferences
you may have.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Select a Novice, Custom or Express install, depending on
whether or not you would like the installation to help you
through a typical installation, give you a high degree of
control over each step of the installation or simply whizz
through it (using reasonable defaults when possible) as fast
as possible. If you have never used FreeBSD before then the
Novice installation method is most recommended.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>The final configuration menu choice allows you to further
configure your FreeBSD installation by giving you menu-driven
access to various system defaults. Some items, like
networking, may be especially important if you did a
CDROM/Tape/Floppy installation and have not yet configured
your network interfaces (assuming you have any). Properly
configuring such interfaces here will allow FreeBSD to come up
on the network when you first reboot from the hard
disk.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>MS-DOS User's Questions and Answers</title>
<para>Many FreeBSD users wish to install FreeBSD on PCs inhabited by
MS-DOS. Here are some commonly asked questions about installing
FreeBSD on such systems.</para>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Help! I have no space! Do I need to delete
everything first?</emphasis></para>
<para>If your machine is already running MS-DOS and has little or no
free space available for FreeBSD's installation, all is not lost!
You may find the FIPS utility, provided in the <filename>tools</filename> directory on the FreeBSD CDROM or on the
various FreeBSD ftp sites, to be quite useful.</para>
<para>FIPS allows you to split an existing MS-DOS partition into two
pieces, preserving the original partition and allowing you to
install onto the second free piece. You first defragment your
MS-DOS partition, using the DOS 6.xx DEFRAG utility or the Norton
Disk tools, then run FIPS. It will prompt you for the rest of the
information it needs. Afterwards, you can reboot and install
FreeBSD on the new free slice. See the
<emphasis>Distributions</emphasis> menu for an estimation of how
much free space you will need for the kind of installation you
want.</para>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Can I use compressed MS-DOS filesystems from
FreeBSD?</emphasis></para>
<para>No. If you are using a utility such as Stacker(tm) or
DoubleSpace(tm), FreeBSD will only be able to use whatever portion
of the filesystem you leave uncompressed. The rest of the
filesystem will show up as one large file (the stacked/dblspaced
file!). <emphasis remap=bf>Do not remove that file!</emphasis> You
will probably regret it greatly!</para>
<para>It is probably better to create another uncompressed MS-DOS
primary partition and use this for communications between MS-DOS and
FreeBSD.</para>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Can I mount my MS-DOS extended
partitions?</emphasis></para>
<para>Yes. DOS extended partitions are mapped in at the end of the
other <quote>slices</quote> in FreeBSD, e.g. your <filename>D:</filename> drive might be <filename>/dev/sd0s5</filename>,
your <filename>E:</filename> drive <filename>/dev/sd0s6</filename>, and so on. This example assumes, of
course, that your extended partition is on SCSI drive 0. For IDE
drives, substitute <filename>wd</filename> for <filename>sd</filename> appropriately. You otherwise
mount extended partitions exactly like you would mount any other DOS
drive, e.g.:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; mount -t msdos /dev/sd0s5 /dos_d</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Can I run MS-DOS binaries under
FreeBSD?</emphasis></para>
<para>BSDI has donated their DOS emulator to the BSD world and this
has been ported to FreeBSD.</para>
<para>There is also a (technically) nice application available in the
<xref linkend="ports" remap="The Ports Collection"> called pcemu
which allows you to run many basic MS-DOS text-mode binaries by
entirely emulating an 8088 CPU.</para>
</sect1>
</chapter>
<chapter
id="basics">
<title>Unix Basics</title>
<sect1
id="basics-man">
<title>The Online Manual</title>
<para>The most comprehensive documentation on FreeBSD is in the form
of <emphasis>man pages</emphasis>. Nearly every program on the
system comes with a short reference manual explaining the basic
operation and various arguments. These manuals can be view with the
<emphasis remap=tt><command>man</command></emphasis>
command. Use of the <emphasis remap=tt><emphasis
remap=bf>man</emphasis></emphasis> command is simple:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user;
<userinput>man <replaceable>command</replaceable></userinput>
</screen>
</informalexample> where <replaceable>command</replaceable> is
the name of the command you wish to learn about. For example, to
learn more about <command>ls</command> command type:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>man ls</userinput></screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>The online manual is divided up into numbered sections:
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>User commands</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>System calls and error numbers</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Functions in the C libraries</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Device drivers</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>File formats</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Games and other diversions</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Miscellaneous information</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>System maintenance and operation commands</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist> in some cases, the same topic may appear in more than
one section of the on-line manual. For example, there is a
<emphasis remap=tt><command>chmod</command></emphasis>
user command and a <emphasis
remap=tt><function>chmod()</function></emphasis> system call. In
this case, you can tell the <emphasis remap=tt><emphasis
remap=bf>man</emphasis></emphasis> command which one you want by
specifying the section:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>man 1 chmod</userinput></screen>
</informalexample> which will display the manual page for the user
command <emphasis remap=tt><emphasis
remap=bf>chmod</emphasis></emphasis>. References to a
particular section of the on-line manual are traditionally placed in
parenthesis in written documentation, so <citerefentry<refentrytitle>chmod</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> refers to the
<emphasis remap=tt><command>chmod</command></emphasis>
user command and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chmod</refentrytitle><manvolnum>2</manvolnum></citerefentry> refers to the
system call.</para>
<para>This is fine if you know the name of the command and simply wish
to know how to use it, but what if you cannot recall the command
name? You can use <emphasis remap=tt><emphasis
remap=bf>man</emphasis></emphasis> to search for keywords in the
command <emphasis>descriptions</emphasis> by using the <emphasis
remap=tt><option>-k</option></emphasis> switch:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>man -k mail</userinput></screen>
</informalexample> With this command you will be presented with a
list of commands that have the keyword <quote>mail</quote> in their descriptions.
This is actually functionally equivalent to using the <emphasis
remap=tt><command>apropos</command></emphasis>
command.</para>
<para>So, you are looking at all those fancy commands in
<filename>/usr/bin</filename> but do not even have the faintest idea
what most of them actually do? Simply do a
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>cd /usr/bin; man -f *</userinput></screen>
</informalexample> or
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>cd /usr/bin; whatis *</userinput></screen>
</informalexample> which does the same thing.</para>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="basics-info">
<title>GNU Info Files</title>
<para>FreeBSD includes many applications and utilities produced by the
Free Software Foundation (FSF). In addition to man pages, these
programs come with more extensive hypertext documents called
<emphasis>info</emphasis> files which can be viewed with the
<command>info</command> command or, if you installed
<command>emacs</command>, the info mode of <command>emacs</command>.</para>
<para>To use the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>info</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> command, simply type:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>info</userinput></screen>
</informalexample> For a brief introduction, type <emphasis
remap=tt><emphasis remap=bf>h</emphasis></emphasis>. For a quick
command reference, type <emphasis remap=tt><emphasis
remap=bf>?</emphasis></emphasis>.</para>
</sect1>
</chapter>
<chapter
id="ports">
<title>Installing Applications: The Ports collection</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.jraynard;.</emphasis></para>
<para>The FreeBSD Ports collection allows you to compile and install a
very wide range of applications with a minimum of effort. </para>
<para> For all the hype about open standards, getting a program to work
on different versions of Unix in the real world can be a tedious and
tricky business, as anyone who has tried it will know. You may be
lucky enough to find that the program you want will compile cleanly on
your system, install itself in all the right places and run flawlessly
<quote>out of the box</quote>, but this is unfortunately rather rare. With most
programs, you will find yourself doing a fair bit of head-scratching,
and there are quite a few programs that will result in premature
greying, or even chronic alopecia...</para>
<para> Some software distributions have attacked this problem by
providing configuration scripts. Some of these are very clever, but
they have an unfortunate tendency to triumphantly announce that your
system is something you have never heard of and then ask you lots of
questions that sound like a final exam in system-level Unix
programming (<quote>Does your system's gethitlist function return a const
pointer to a fromboz or a pointer to a const fromboz? Do you have
Foonix style unacceptable exception handling? And if not, why
not?</quote>).</para>
<para> Fortunately, with the Ports collection, all the hard work
involved has already been done, and you can just type 'make install'
and get a working program.</para>
<sect1>
<title>Why Have a Ports Collection?</title>
<para>The base FreeBSD system comes with a very wide range of tools
and system utilities, but a lot of popular programs are not in the
base system, for good reasons:-</para>
<para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Programs that some people cannot live without and other
people cannot stand, such as a certain Lisp-based editor.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Programs which are too specialised to put in the base
system (CAD, databases).
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Programs which fall into the <quote>I must have a look at that
when I get a spare minute</quote> category, rather than
system-critical ones (some languages, perhaps).
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Programs that are far too much fun to be supplied with a
serious operating system like FreeBSD ;-)
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>However many programs you put in the base system, people
will always want more, and a line has to be drawn somewhere
(otherwise FreeBSD distributions would become absolutely
enormous).</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
<para> Obviously it would be unreasonable to expect everyone to port
their favourite programs by hand (not to mention a tremendous amount
of duplicated work), so the FreeBSD Project came up with an
ingenious way of using standard tools that would automate the
process. </para>
<para> Incidentally, this is an excellent illustration of how <quote>the
Unix way</quote> works in practice by combining a set of simple but very
flexible tools into something very powerful.</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>How Does the Ports Collection Work?</title>
<para>Programs are typically distributed on the Internet as a
<xref linkend="ports-tarball" remap="tarball"> consisting of a
Makefile and the source code for the program and usually some
instructions (which are unfortunately not always as instructive as
they could be), with perhaps a configuration script. </para>
<para>The standard scenario is that you FTP down the tarball, extract
it somewhere, glance through the instructions, make any changes
that seem necessary, run the configure script to set things up and
use the standard <command>make</command> program to compile and install the program
from the source.</para>
<para>FreeBSD ports still use the tarball mechanism, but use a
<xref linkend="ports-skeleton" remap="skeleton"> to hold the
&quot;knowledge&quot; of how to get the program working on FreeBSD,
rather than expecting the user to be able to work it out. They also
supply their own customised
<xref linkend="ports-makefile" remap="Makefile">, so that almost
every port can be built in the same way.</para>
<para>If you look at a port skeleton (either on <ulink
URL="file://localhost/usr/ports/devel/ElectricFence">your FreeBSD
system</ulink> or <ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/devel/ElectricFence">the FTP site</ulink>) and expect to find all sorts of pointy-headed rocket science lurking there, you may be disappointed by the one or two rather unexciting-looking files and directories you find there. (We will discuss in a minute how to go about <xref
linkend="ports-getting" remap="Getting a port">).</para>
<para><quote>How on earth can this do anything?</quote> I hear you cry. <quote>There
is no source code there!</quote></para>
<para> Fear not, gentle reader, all will become clear (hopefully).
Let's see what happens if we try and install a port. I have chosen
<application>ElectricFence</application>, a useful tool for developers, as the skeleton is
more straightforward than most.</para>
<para><emphasis>Note</emphasis> if you are trying this at home, you
will need to be root.</para>
<para>
<literallayout> &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/devel/ElectricFence &prompt.root; make install
&gt;&gt; Checksum OK for ElectricFence-2.0.5.tar.gz. ===&gt;
Extracting for ElectricFence-2.0.5 ===&gt; Patching for
ElectricFence-2.0.5 ===&gt; Applying FreeBSD patches for
ElectricFence-2.0.5 ===&gt; Configuring for ElectricFence-2.0.5
===&gt; Building for ElectricFence-2.0.5 [lots of compiler
output...] ===&gt; Installing for ElectricFence-2.0.5 ===&gt;
Warning: your umask is "0002". If this is not desired, set it to
an appropriate value and install this port again by ``make
reinstall''. install -c -o bin -g bin -m 444
/usr/ports/devel/ElectricFence/work/ElectricFence-2.0.5/libefence.a /usr/local/lib install -c -o bin -g bin -m 444 /usr/ports/devel/ElectricFence/work/ElectricFence-2.0.5/libefence.3 /usr/local/man/man3 ===&gt; Compressing manual pages for ElectricFence-2.0.5 ===&gt; Registering installation for ElectricFence-2.0.5</literallayout>
</para>
<para> To avoid confusing the issue, I have completely removed the
build output.</para>
<para>If you tried this yourself, you may well have got something like
this at the start:-</para>
<para><anchor id="ports-fetch"> <literallayout>&prompt.root; make install &gt;&gt;
ElectricFence-2.0.5.tar.gz doesn't seem to exist on this system.
&gt;&gt; Attempting to fetch from
ftp://ftp.doc.ic.ac.uk/Mirrors/sunsite.unc.edu/pub/Linux/devel/lang/c/.</literallayout>
</para>
<para> The <command>make</command> program has noticed that you did not have a local
copy of the source code and tried to FTP it down so it could get the
job done. I already had the source handy in my example, so it did
not need to fetch it.</para>
<para> Let's go through this and see what the <command>make</command> program was
doing.</para>
<para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para> Locate the source code <xref linkend="ports-tarball"
remap="tarball."> If it is not available locally, try to
grab it from an FTP site.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Run a <xref linkend="ports-checksum" remap="checksum">
test on the tarball to make sure it has not been tampered
with, accidentally truncated, downloaded in ASCII mode, struck
by neutrinos while in transit, etc.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Extract the tarball into a temporary work directory.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Apply any <xref linkend="ports-patch" remap="patches">
needed to get the source to compile and run under FreeBSD.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Run any configuration script required by the build
process and correctly answer any questions it asks.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> (Finally!) Compile the code.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Install the program executable and other supporting
files, man pages, etc. under the
<filename>/usr/local</filename> hierarchy, where they will not
get mixed up with system programs. This also makes sure that
all the ports you install will go in the same place, instead
of being flung all over your system.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Register the installation in a database. This means that,
if you do not like the program, you can cleanly <xref
linkend="ports-remove" remap="remove"> all traces of it from
your system.
</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
<para> Scroll up to the make output and see if you can match these
steps to it. And if you were not impressed before, you should be by
now!</para>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="ports-getting">
<title>Getting a FreeBSD Port</title>
<para>There are two ways of getting hold of the FreeBSD port for a
program. One requires a <xref linkend="ports-cd" remap="FreeBSD
CDROM">, the other involves using an <xref linkend="ports-inet"
remap="Internet Connection."></para>
<sect2
id="ports-cd">
<title>Compiling ports from CDROM</title>
<para>If you answered yes to the question <quote>Do you want to link the
ports collection to your CDROM</quote> during the FreeBSD installation,
the initial setting up will already have been done for you.</para>
<para>If not, make sure the <emphasis>FreeBSD</emphasis> CDROM is in
the drive and mounted on, say, <filename>/cdrom</filename>. Then
do</para>
<para>
<literallayout> &prompt.root; mkdir /usr/ports &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; ln -s
/cdrom/ports/distfiles distfiles</literallayout>
</para>
<para>to enable the ports make mechanism to find the tarballs (it
expects to find them in <filename>/usr/ports/distfiles</filename>,
which is why we sym-linked the CDROM's tarball directory to that
directory).</para>
<para>Now, suppose you want to install the gnats program from the
databases directory. Here is how to do it:-</para>
<para>
<literallayout> &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; mkdir databases &prompt.root; cp -R
/cdrom/ports/databases/gnats databases &prompt.root; cd databases/gnats &prompt.root;
make install</literallayout>
</para>
<para>Or if you are a serious database user and you want to compare
all the ones available in the Ports collection, do</para>
<para>
<literallayout> &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; cp -R /cdrom/ports/databases . &prompt.root;
cd databases &prompt.root; make install</literallayout>
</para>
<para>(yes, that really is a dot on its own after the cp command and
not a mistake. It is Unix-ese for <quote>the current
directory</quote>)</para>
<para>and the ports make mechanism will automatically compile and
install all the ports in the databases directory for you!</para>
<para>If you do not like this method, here is a completely different
way of doing it:-</para>
<para>Create a <quote>link tree</quote> to it using the
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>lndir</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> command that comes with the
<emphasis>XFree86</emphasis> distribution. Find a location with
some free space, create a directory there and then cd to it. Then
invoke the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lndir</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> command with the full
pathname of the <filename>ports</filename> directory on the CDROM as the first
argument and . (the current directory) as the second. This might
be, for example, something like: <literallayout> lndir
/cdrom/ports .</literallayout>
</para>
<para>Then you can build ports directly off the CDROM by building
them in the link tree you have created.</para>
<para>Note that there are some ports for which we cannot provide the
original source in the CDROM due to licensing limitations. In
that case, you will need to look at the section on <xref
linkend="ports-inet"
remap="Compiling ports using an Internet connection."></para>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="ports-inet">
<title>Compiling ports from the Internet</title>
<para>If you do not have a CDROM, or you want to make sure you get
the very latest version of the port you want, you will need to
download the
<xref linkend="ports-skeleton" remap="skeleton"> for the port. Now
this might sound like rather a fiddly job full of pitfalls, but
it is actually very easy. </para>
<para>The key to it is that the FreeBSD FTP server can create
on-the-fly
<xref linkend="ports-tarball" remap="tarballs"> for you. Here is
how it works, with the gnats program in the databases directory as
an example (the bits in square brackets are comments. Do not type
them in if you are trying this yourself!):-</para>
<para>
<literallayout> &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; mkdir databases &prompt.root; cd databases &prompt.root;
ftp ftp.freebsd.org [log in as `ftp' and give your email address
when asked for a password. Remember to use binary (also known as
image) mode!] &gt; cd /pub/FreeBSD/ports/databases &gt; get
gnats.tar [tars up the gnats skeleton for us] &gt; quit
&prompt.root; tar xf gnats.tar [extract the gnats skeleton] &prompt.root;
cd gnats &prompt.root; make install [build and install
gnats]</literallayout>
</para>
<para>What happened here? We connected to the FTP server in the
usual way and went to its databases sub-directory. When we gave it
the command <command>get gnats.tar</command>, the FTP server <xref
linkend="ports-tarball"
remap="tarred"> up the gnats directory for us.</para>
<para>We then extracted the gnats skeleton and went into the gnats
directory to build the port. As we explained <xref
linkend="ports-fetch"
remap="earlier">, the make process noticed we did not have a
copy of the source locally, so it fetched one before extracting,
patching and building it.</para>
<para>Let's try something more ambitious now. Instead of getting a
single port skeleton, let's get a whole sub-directory, for example
all the database skeletons in the ports collection. It looks
almost the same:-</para>
<para>
<literallayout> &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; ftp ftp.freebsd.org [log in as
`ftp' and give your email address when asked for a password.
Remember to use binary (also known as image) mode!] &gt; cd
/pub/FreeBSD/ports &gt; get databases.tar [tars up the
databases directory for us] &gt; quit &prompt.root; tar xf databases.tar
[extract all the database skeletons] &prompt.root; cd databases &prompt.root; make
install [build and install all the database
ports]</literallayout>
</para>
<para>With half a dozen straightforward commands, we have now got a
set of database programs on our FreeBSD machine! All we did that
was different from getting a single port skeleton and building it
was that we got a whole directory at once, and compiled everything
in it at once. Pretty impressive, no?</para>
<para>If you expect to be installing many ports, it is probably
worth downloading all the ports directories.</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="ports-skeleton">
<title>Skeletons</title>
<para>A team of compulsive hackers who have forgotten to eat in a
frantic attempt to make a deadline? Something unpleasant lurking in
the FreeBSD attic? No, a skeleton here is a minimal framework that
supplies everything needed to make the ports magic work.</para>
<sect2
id="ports-makefile">
<title><filename>Makefile</filename></title>
<para>The most important component of a skeleton is the Makefile.
This contains various statements that specify how the port should
be compiled and installed. Here is the Makefile for
ElectricFence:-</para>
<para>
<literallayout># New ports collection makefile for: Electric
Fence # Version required: 2.0.5 # Date created: 13 November
1997 # Whom: jraynard # # $Id:
handbook.sgml,v 1.1 1998/04/01 18:25:32 nik Exp $ # DISTNAME=
ElectricFence-2.0.5 CATEGORIES= devel MASTER_SITES=
${MASTER_SITE_SUNSITE} MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR= devel/lang/c
MAINTAINER= jraynard@freebsd.org MAN3=
libefence.3 do-install: ${INSTALL_DATA} ${WRKSRC}/libefence.a
${PREFIX}/lib ${INSTALL_MAN} ${WRKSRC}/libefence.3
${PREFIX}/man/man3 .include &lt;bsd.port.mk&gt;</literallayout>
</para>
<para>The lines beginning with a &quot;#&quot; sign are comments for
the benefit of human readers (as in most Unix script
files).</para>
<para>`DISTNAME&quot; specifies the name of the <xref
linkend="ports-tarball" remap="tarball">, but without the
extension.</para>
<para>`CATEGORIES&quot; states what kind of program this is. In
this case, a utility for developers.</para>
<para>`MASTER_SITES&quot; is the URL(s) of the master FTP site,
which is used to retrieve the <xref linkend="ports-tarball"
remap="tarball"> if it is not available on the local system.
This is a site which is regarded as reputable, and is normally the
one from which the program is officially distributed (in so far
as any software is &quot;officially&quot; distributed on the
Internet).</para>
<para>`MAINTAINER&quot; is the email address of the person who is
responsible for updating the skeleton if, for example a new
version of the program comes out.</para>
<para>Skipping over the next few lines for a minute, the line
<literallayout> .include &lt;bsd.port.mk&gt; </literallayout> says
that the other statements and commands needed for this port are
in a standard file called <filename>bsd.port.mk</filename>. As
these are the same for all ports, there is no point in duplicating
them all over the place, so they are kept in a single standard
file.</para>
<para>This is probably not the place to go into a detailed
examination of how Makefiles work; suffice it to say that the line
starting with <literal>MAN3</literal> ensures that the ElectricFence man page is
compressed after installation, to help conserve your precious disk
space. The original port did not provide an <maketarget>install</maketarget> target,
so the three lines from <maketarget>do-install</maketarget> ensure that the files
produced by this port are placed in the correct
destination.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>The <filename>files</filename> directory</title>
<para>The file containing the <xref linkend="ports-checksum"
remap="checksum"> for the port is called
<filename>md5</filename>, after the MD5 algorithm used for ports
checksums. It lives in a directory with the slightly confusing
name of <filename>files</filename>.</para>
<para>This directory can also contain other miscellaneous files that
are required by the port and do not belong anywhere else.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>The <filename>patches</filename> directory</title>
<para>This directory contains the <xref linkend="ports-patch"
remap="patches"> needed to make everything work properly under
FreeBSD.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>The <filename>pkg</filename> directory</title>
<para>This program contains three quite useful files:-</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><filename>COMMENT</filename> - a one-line description of
the program.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><filename>DESCR</filename> - a more detailed description.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><filename>PLIST</filename> - a list of all the files
that will be created when the program is installed.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="ports-troubleshooting">
<title>What to do when a port does not work.</title>
<para>Oh. You can do one of four (4) things :</para>
<para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para> Fix it yourself. Technical details on how ports work can
be found in
<xref linkend="porting" remap="Porting applications."></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Gripe. This is done by e-mail *ONLY*! Send such e-mail to
the &a.ports; and please include the name/version of the port,
where you got both the port source &amp; distfile(s) from, and
what the text of the error was.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Forget it. This is the easiest for most - very few of the
programs in ports can be classified as essential!
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Grab the pre-compiled package from a ftp server. The
<quote>master</quote> package collection is on FreeBSD's FTP server in
the <ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/packages/">packages
directory</ulink>, though check your local mirror first,
please! These are more likely to work (on the whole) than
trying to compile from source and a lot faster besides! Use
the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pkg_add</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> program to install a
package file on your system.
</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>I Want to Make a Port!</title>
<para>Great! Please see the <xref linkend="porting"
remap="guidelines"> for detailed instructions on how to do
this.</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Some Questions and Answers</title>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Q. I thought this was going to be a discussion about
modems??!
</para>
<para>A. Ah. You must be thinking of the serial ports on the
back of your computer. We are using <quote>port</quote> here to mean the
result of <quote>porting</quote> a program from one version of Unix to
another. (It is an unfortunate bad habit of computer people to
use the same word to refer to several completely different
things).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Q. I thought you were supposed to use packages to install
extra programs?
</para>
<para>A. Yes, that is usually the quickest and easiest way of
doing it.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Q. So why bother with ports then?
</para>
<para>A. Several reasons:-</para>
<para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para> The licensing conditions on some software
distributions require that they be distributed as source
code, not binaries.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Some people do not trust binary distributions. At
least with source code you can (in theory) read through
it and look for potential problems yourself.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> If you have some local patches, you will need the
source to add them yourself.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> You might have opinions on how a program should be
compiled that differ from the person who did the package
- some people have strong views on what optimisation
setting should be used, whether to build debug versions
and then strip them or not, etc. etc.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Some people like having code around, so they can
read it if they get bored, hack around with it, borrow
from it (licence terms permitting, of course!) and so
on.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> If you ain't got the source, it ain't software!
;-)</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><anchor id="ports-patch"> Q. What is a patch?
</para>
<para>A. A patch is a small (usually) file that specifies how to
go from one version of a file to another. It contains text
that says, in effect, things like <quote>delete line 23</quote>, <quote>add
these two lines after line 468</quote> or <quote>change line 197 to
this</quote>. Also known as a <quote>diff</quote>, since it is generated by a
program of that name.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><anchor id="ports-tarball"> Q. What is all this about
tarballs?
</para>
<para>A. It is a file ending in <filename>.tar</filename> or
<filename>.tar.gz</filename> (with variations like
<filename>.tar.Z</filename>, or even <filename>.tgz</filename>
if you are trying to squeeze the names into a DOS
filesystem).</para>
<para>Basically, it is a directory tree that has been archived
into a single file (<filename>.tar</filename>) and optionally
compressed (<filename>.gz</filename>). This technique was
originally used for <emphasis>T</emphasis>ape
<emphasis>AR</emphasis>chives (hence the name <command>tar</command>), but it is
a widely used way of distributing program source code around
the Internet.</para>
<para>You can see what files are in them, or even extract them
yourself, by using the standard Unix tar program, which comes
with the base FreeBSD system, like this:-</para>
<para>
<literallayout>&prompt.user; tar tvzf foobar.tar.gz # View
contents of foobar.tar.gz &prompt.user; tar xzvf foobar.tar.gz
# Extract contents into the current directory &prompt.user; tar tvf
foobar.tar # View contents of foobar.tar
&prompt.user; tar xvf
foobar.tar # Extract contents into the current
directory</literallayout>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><anchor id="ports-checksum"> Q. And a checksum?
</para>
<para>A. It is a number generated by adding up all the data in
the file you want to check. If any of the characters change,
the checksum will no longer be equal to the total, so a simple
comparison will allow you to spot the difference. (In
practice, it is done in a more complicated way to spot
problems like position-swapping, which will not show up with a
simplistic addition).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Q. I did what you said for <xref linkend="ports-cd"
remap="compiling ports from a CDROM"> and it worked great
until I tried to install the kermit port:- <literallayout> #
make install &gt;&gt; cku190.tar.gz doesn't seem to exist on
this system. &gt;&gt; Attempting to fetch from
ftp://kermit.columbia.edu/kermit/archives/.</literallayout>
Why can it not be found? Have I got a dud CDROM?
</para>
<para>A. The licensing terms for kermit do not allow us to put
the tarball for it on the CDROM, so you will have to fetch it
by hand - sorry! The reason why you got all those error
messages was because you were not connected to the Internet at
the time. Once you have downloaded it from any of the sites
above, you can re-start the process (try and choose the
nearest site to you, though, to save your time and the
Internet's bandwidth).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Q. I did that, but when I tried to put it into
<filename>/usr/ports/distfiles</filename> I got some error
about not having permission.
</para>
<para>A. The ports mechanism looks for the tarball in
<filename>/usr/ports/distfiles</filename>, but you will not be
able to copy anything there because it is sym-linked to the
CDROM, which is read-only. You can tell it to look somewhere
else by doing</para>
<para>
<literallayout> DISTDIR=/where/you/put/it make
install</literallayout>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Q. Does the ports scheme only work if you have everything
in <filename>/usr/ports</filename>? My system administrator
says I must put everything under
<filename>/u/people/guests/wurzburger</filename>, but it does
not seem to work.
</para>
<para>A. You can use the PORTSDIR and PREFIX variables to tell
the ports mechanism to use different directories. For
instance,</para>
<para>
<literallayout> make
PORTSDIR=/u/people/guests/wurzburger/ports
install</literallayout>
</para>
<para>will compile the port in
<filename>/u/people/guests/wurzburger/ports</filename> and
install everything under <filename>/usr/local</filename>.
</para>
<para>
<literallayout> make PREFIX=/u/people/guests/wurzburger/local
install</literallayout>
</para>
<para>will compile it in <filename>/usr/ports</filename> and
install it in
<filename>/u/people/guests/wurzburger/local</filename>.
</para>
<para>And of course</para>
<para>
<literallayout> make PORTSDIR=.../ports PREFIX=.../local
install</literallayout>
</para>
<para>will combine the two (it is too long to fit on the page if
I write it in full, but I am sure you get the idea).</para>
<para>If you do not fancy typing all that in every time you
install a port (and to be honest, who would?), it is a good
idea to put these variables into your environment.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Q. I do not have a FreeBSD CDROM, but I would like to have
all the tarballs handy on my system so I do not have to wait
for a download every time I install a port. Is there an easy
way to get them all at once?
</para>
<para>A. To get every single tarball for the ports collection,
do</para>
<para>
<literallayout> # cd /usr/ports # make fetch</literallayout>
</para>
<para>For all the tarballs for a single ports directory,
do</para>
<para>
<literallayout> # cd /usr/ports/directory # make
fetch</literallayout>
</para>
<para>and for just one port - well, I think you have guessed
already.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Q. I know it is probably faster to fetch the tarballs from
one of the FreeBSD mirror sites close by. Is there any way to
tell the port to fetch them from servers other than ones
listed in the MASTER_SITES?
</para>
<para>A. Yes. If you know, for example, ftp.FreeBSD.ORG is much
closer than sites listed in MASTER_SITES, do as following
example. <literallayout> # cd /usr/ports/directory # make
MASTER_SITE_OVERRIDE=ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD/distfiles/ fetch</literallayout>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Q. I want to know what files make is going to need before
it tries to pull them down.
</para>
<para>A. 'make fetch-list' will display a list of the files
needed for a port.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Q. Is there any way to stop the port from compiling? I
want to do some hacking on the source before I install it, but
it is a bit tiresome having to watch it and hit control-C
every time.
</para>
<para>A. Doing 'make extract' will stop it after it has fetched
and extracted the source code.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Q. I am trying to make my own port and I want to be able
to stop it compiling until I have had a chance to see if my
patches worked properly. Is there something like 'make
extract', but for patches?
</para>
<para>A. Yep, 'make patch' is what you want. You will probably
find the PATCH_DEBUG option useful as well. And by the way,
thank you for your efforts!</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Q. I have heard that some compiler options can cause bugs.
Is this true? How can I make sure that I compile ports with
the right settings?
</para>
<para>A. Yes, with version 2.6.3 of gcc (the version shipped
with FreeBSD 2.1.0 and 2.1.5), the -O2 option could result in
buggy code unless you used the -fno-strength-reduce option as
well. (Most of the ports don't use -O2). You
<emphasis>should</emphasis> be able to specify the compiler
options used by something like</para>
<para>
<literallayout> make CFLAGS='-O2 -fno-strength-reduce'
install</literallayout>
</para>
<para>or by editing <filename>/etc/make.conf</filename>, but
unfortunately not all ports respect this. The surest way is to
do 'make configure', then go into the source directory and
inspect the Makefiles by hand, but this can get tedious if the
source has lots of sub-directories, each with their own
Makefiles.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Q. There are so many ports it is hard to find the one I
want. Is there a list anywhere of what ports are available?
</para>
<para>A. Look in the INDEX file in /usr/ports.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Q. I went to install the 'foo' port but the system
suddenly stopped compiling it and starting compiling the 'bar'
port. What's going on?
</para>
<para>A. The 'foo' port needs something that is supplied with
'bar' - for instance, if 'foo' uses graphics, 'bar' might have
a library with useful graphics processing routines. Or 'bar'
might be a tool that is needed to compile the 'foo'
port.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><anchor id="ports-remove"> Q. I installed the grizzle
program from the ports and frankly it is a complete waste of
disk space. I want to delete it but I do not know where it put
all the files. Any clues?
</para>
<para>A. No problem, just do</para>
<para>
<literallayout> pkg_delete grizzle-6.5</literallayout>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Q. Hang on a minute, you have to know the version number to
use that command. You do not seriously expect me to remember
that, do you??
</para>
<para>A. Not at all, you can find it out by doing</para>
<para>
<literallayout> pkg_info -a | grep grizzle</literallayout>
</para>
<para>And it will tell you:-</para>
<para>
<literallayout> Information for grizzle-6.5: grizzle-6.5 - the
combined piano tutorial, LOGO interpreter and shoot 'em up
arcade game.</literallayout>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Q. Talking of disk space, the ports directory seems to be
taking up an awful lot of room. Is it safe to go in there and
delete things?
</para>
<para>A. Yes, if you have installed the program and are fairly
certain you will not need the source again, there is no point
in keeping it hanging around. The best way to do this
is</para>
<para>
<literallayout> # cd /usr/ports # make clean</literallayout>
</para>
<para>which will go through all the ports subdirectories and
delete everything except the skeletons for each port.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Q. I tried that and it still left all those tarballs or
whatever you called them in the <filename>distfiles</filename>
directory. Can I delete those as well?
</para>
<para>A. Yes, if you are sure you have finished with them, those
can go as well.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Q. I like having lots and lots of programs to play with.
Is there any way of installing all the ports in one go?
</para>
<para>A. Just do</para>
<para>
<literallayout> # cd /usr/ports # make install</literallayout>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Q. OK, I tried that, but I thought it would take a very
long time so I went to bed and left it to get on with it. When
I looked at the computer this morning, it had only done three
and a half ports. Did something go wrong?
</para>
<para>A. No, the problem is that some of the ports need to ask
you questions that we cannot answer for you (eg <quote>Do you want
to print on A4 or US letter sized paper?</quote>) and they need to
have someone on hand to answer them.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Q. I really do not want to spend all day staring at the
monitor. Any better ideas?
</para>
<para>A. OK, do this before you go to bed/work/the local
park:-</para>
<para>
<literallayout> # cd /usr/ports # make -DBATCH
install</literallayout>
</para>
<para>This will install every port that does
<emphasis>not</emphasis> require user input. Then, when you
come back, do</para>
<para>
<literallayout> # cd /usr/ports # make -DIS_INTERACTIVE
install</literallayout>
</para>
<para>to finish the job.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Q. At work, we are using frobble, which is in your ports
collection, but we have altered it quite a bit to get it to do
what we need. Is there any way of making our own packages, so
we can distribute it more easily around our sites?
</para>
<para>A. No problem, assuming you know how to make patches for
your changes:-</para>
<para>
<literallayout> # cd /usr/ports/somewhere/frobble # make
extract # cd work/frobble-2.8 [Apply your patches] # cd
../.. # make package</literallayout>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Q. This ports stuff is really clever. I am desperate to
find out how you did it. What is the secret?
</para>
<para>A. Nothing secret about it at all, just look at the
<filename>bsd.ports.mk</filename> and
<filename>bsd.ports.subdir.mk</filename> files in your <ulink
URL="file://localhost/usr/share/mk/">makefiles
directory.</ulink></para>
<note>
<para>Readers with an aversion to intricate shell-scripts are
advised not to follow this link...)</para>
</note>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para> </para>
</sect1>
</chapter>
</part>
<part>
<title>System Administration</title>
<chapter
id="kernelconfig">
<title>Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.jehamby;.<!-- <br> -->6 October
1995.</emphasis></para>
<para>This large section of the handbook discusses the basics of
building your own custom kernel for FreeBSD. This section is
appropriate for both novice system administrators and those with
advanced Unix experience.</para>
<sect1>
<title>Why Build a Custom Kernel?</title>
<para>Building a custom kernel is one of the most important rites of
passage every Unix system administrator must endure. This process,
while time-consuming, will provide many benefits to your FreeBSD
system. Unlike the GENERIC kernel, which must support every
possible SCSI and network card, along with tons of other rarely used
hardware support, a custom kernel only contains support for
<emphasis>your</emphasis> PC's hardware. This has a number of
benefits:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>It will take less time to boot because it does not have to
spend time probing for hardware which you do not have.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>A custom kernel often uses less memory, which is important
because the kernel is the one process which must always be
present in memory, and so all of that unused code ties up
pages of RAM that your programs would otherwise be able to
use. Therefore, on a system with limited RAM, building a
custom kernel is of critical importance.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Finally, there are several kernel options which you can
tune to fit your needs, and device driver support for things
like sound cards which you can include in your kernel but are
<emphasis>not</emphasis> present in the GENERIC kernel.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="kernelconfig-building">
<title>Building and Installing a Custom Kernel</title>
<para>First, let us take a quick tour of the kernel build directory.
All directories mentioned will be relative to the main
<filename>/usr/src/sys</filename> directory, which is also
accessible through <filename>/sys</filename>. There are a number of
subdirectories here representing different parts of the kernel, but
the most important, for our purposes, are
<filename>i386/conf</filename>, where you will edit your custom
kernel configuration, and <emphasis remap=tt>compile</emphasis>,
which is the staging area where your kernel will be built. Notice
the logical organization of the directory tree, with each supported
device, filesystem, and option in its own subdirectory. Also,
anything inside the <filename>i386</filename> directory deals with
PC hardware only, while everything outside the
<filename>i386</filename> directory is common to all platforms which
FreeBSD could potentially be ported to.</para>
<note>
<para>If there is <emphasis>not</emphasis> a
<filename>/usr/src/sys</filename> directory on your system, then
the kernel source has not been been installed. Follow the
instructions for installing packages to add this package to your
system.</para>
</note>
<para>Next, move to the <filename>i386/conf</filename> directory and
copy the <filename>GENERIC</filename> configuration file to the name
you want to give your kernel. For example:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; cd /usr/src/sys/i386/conf &prompt.root; cp GENERIC MYKERNEL</screen>
</informalexample> Traditionally, this name is in all capital
letters and, if you are maintaining multiple FreeBSD machines with
different hardware, it is a good idea to name it after your
machine's hostname. We will call it <filename>MYKERNEL</filename>
for the purpose of this example.</para>
<note>
<para>You must execute these and all of the following commands
under the root account or you will get <errortype>permission denied</errortype>
errors.</para>
</note>
<para>Now, edit <filename>MYKERNEL</filename> with your favorite text
editor. If you are just starting out, the only editor available
will probably be <command>vi</command>, which is too
complex to explain here, but is covered well in many books in the
<xref
linkend="bibliography" remap="bibliography">. Feel free to change
the comment lines at the top to reflect your configuration or the
changes you have made to differentiate it from
<filename>GENERIC</filename>.</para>
<para>If you have build a kernel under SunOS or some other BSD
operating system, much of this file will be very familiar to you. If
you are coming from some other operating system such as DOS, on the
other hand, the <filename>GENERIC</filename> configuration file
might seem overwhelming to you, so follow the descriptions in the
<xref
linkend="kernelconfig-config"
remap="Configuration File"> section slowly and carefully.</para>
<note>
<para>If you are trying to upgrade your kernel from an older version
of FreeBSD, you will probably have to get a new version of
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>config</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> from the same place you got the new
kernel sources. It is located in
<filename>/usr/src/usr.sbin</filename>, so you will need to
download those sources as well. Re-build and install it before
running the next commands.</para>
</note>
<para>When you are finished, type the following to compile and install
your kernel:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; /usr/sbin/config MYKERNEL &prompt.root; cd ../../compile/MYKERNEL &prompt.root;
make depend &prompt.root; make &prompt.root; make install</screen>
</informalexample> The new kernel will be copied to the root
directory as <filename>/kernel</filename> and the old kernel will be
moved to <filename>/kernel.old</filename>. Now, shutdown the system
and reboot to use your kernel. In case something goes wrong, there
are some <xref linkend="kernelconfig-trouble"
remap="troubleshooting"> instructions at the end of this document.
Be sure to read the section which explains how to recover in case
your new kernel <xref
linkend="kernelconfig-noboot" remap="does not boot">.</para>
<note>
<para>If you have added any new devices (such as sound cards) you
may have to add some <xref
linkend="kernelconfig-nodes" remap="device nodes"> to your
<filename>/dev</filename> directory before you can use
them.</para>
</note>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="kernelconfig-config">
<title>The Configuration File</title>
<para>The general format of a configuration file is quite simple. Each
line contains a keyword and one or more arguments. For simplicity,
most lines only contain one argument. Anything following a
<literal>#</literal> is considered a comment and ignored.
The following sections describe each keyword, generally in the order
they are listed in <filename>GENERIC</filename>, although some
related keywords have been grouped together in a single section
(such as Networking) even though they are actually scattered
throughout the <filename>GENERIC</filename> file.
<anchor id="kernelconfig-options"> An exhaustive list of options and
more detailed explanations of the device lines is present in the
<filename>LINT</filename> configuration file, located in the same
directory as <filename>GENERIC</filename>. If you are in doubt as to
the purpose or necessity of a line, check first in
<filename>LINT</filename>.</para>
<para>The kernel is currently being moved to a better organization of
the option handling. Traditionally, each option in the config file
was simply converted into a <option>-D</option> switch for the
<acronym>CFLAGS</acronym> line of the kernel Makefile. Naturally,
this caused a creeping optionism, with nobody really knowing which
option has been referenced in what files.</para>
<para>In the new scheme, every <literal>#ifdef</literal>
that is intended to be dependent upon an option gets this option out
of an <filename>opt_<replaceable>foo</replaceable>.h</filename>
declaration file created in the compile directory by <command>config</command>. The list of valid options for
<command>config</command> lives in two files: options
that do not depend on the architecture are listed in
<filename>/sys/conf/options</filename>, architecture-dependent ones
in
<filename>/sys/<replaceable>arch</replaceable>/conf/options.<replaceable>arch</replaceable></filename>, with <emphasis>arch</emphasis> being for example <filename>i386</filename>.</para>
<sect2>
<title>Mandatory Keywords</title>
<para>These keywords are required in every kernel you build.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>machine "i386"</term>
<listitem>
<para>The first keyword is <literal>machine</literal>, which, since FreeBSD only
runs on Intel 386 and compatible chips, is i386.</para>
<note>
<para>Any keyword which contains numbers used as text
must be enclosed in quotation marks, otherwise
<command>config</command> gets confused and thinks you
mean the actual number 386.</para>
</note>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>cpu "<symbol>cpu_type</symbol>"</term>
<listitem>
<para>The next keyword is <literal>cpu</literal>,
which includes support for each CPU supported by FreeBSD.
The possible values of <emphasis
remap=tt><replaceable>cpu_type</replaceable></emphasis>
include:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>I386_CPU</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>I486_CPU </para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>I586_CPU</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>I686_CPU</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist> and multiple instances of the <literal>cpu</literal> line may be present with
different values of <emphasis
remap=tt><replaceable>cpu_type</replaceable></emphasis>
as are present in the <filename>GENERIC</filename> kernel.
For a custom kernel, it is best to specify only the cpu
you have. If, for example, you have an Intel Pentium, use
<symbol>I586_CPU</symbol> for <emphasis
remap=tt><replaceable>cpu_type</replaceable></emphasis>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>ident <symbol>machine_name</symbol></term>
<listitem>
<para>Next, we have <literal>ident</literal>,
which is the identification of the kernel. You should
change this from <filename>GENERIC</filename> to whatever
you named your kernel, in this example,
<filename>MYKERNEL</filename>. The value you put in
<literal>ident</literal> will print when you
boot up the kernel, so it is useful to give a kernel a
different name if you want to keep it separate from your
usual kernel (if you want to build an experimental kernel,
for example). Note that, as with <literal>machine</literal> and <literal>
cpu</literal>, enclose your kernel's name in quotation
marks if it contains any numbers.</para>
<para>Since this name is passed to the C compiler as a
<option>-D</option> switch, do not use names like
<option>DEBUG</option>, or something that could be
confused with another machine or CPU name, like <literal>vax</literal>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>maxusers <emphasis>number</emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>This file sets the size of a number of important
system tables. This number is supposed to be roughly
equal to the number of simultaneous users you expect to
have on your machine. However, under normal
circumstances, you will want to set <literal>maxusers</literal> to at least four,
especially if you are using the X Window System or
compiling software. The reason is that the most important
table set by <literal>maxusers</literal> is the
maximum number of processes, which is set to <emphasis
remap=bf><emphasis remap=tt>20 + 16 *
maxusers</emphasis></emphasis>, so if you set
<literal>maxusers</literal> to one, then you
can only have 36 simultaneous processes, including the 18
or so that the system starts up at boot time, and the 15
or so you will probably create when you start the X Window
System. Even a simple task like reading a <command>man</command> page will start up nine
processes to filter, decompress, and view it. Setting
<literal>maxusers</literal> to 4 will allow you
to have up to 84 simultaneous processes, which should be
enough for anyone. If, however, you see the dreaded
<errorname>proc table full</errorname> error when trying to start another
program, or are running a server with a large number of
simultaneous users (like Walnut Creek CDROM's FTP site),
you can always increase this number and rebuild.</para>
<note>
<para><literal>maxuser</literal> does
<emphasis>not</emphasis> limit the number of users which
can log into your machine. It simply sets various table
sizes to reasonable values considering the maximum
number of users you will likely have on your system and
how many processes each of them will be running. One
keyword which <emphasis>does</emphasis> limit the number
of simultaneous <emphasis>remote logins</emphasis> is
<xref
linkend="kernelconfig-ptys" remap="pseudo-device pty
16">.</para>
</note>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>config <symbol>kernel_name</symbol> root on
<symbol>root_device</symbol></term>
<listitem>
<para>This line specifies the location and name of the
kernel. Traditionally the kernel is called
<filename>vmunix</filename> but in FreeBSD, it is aptly
named <filename>kernel</filename>. You should always use
<filename>kernel</filename> for
<symbol>kernel_name</symbol> because changing it will
render numerous system utilities inoperative. The second
part of the line specifies the disk and partition where
the root filesystem and kernel can be found. Typically
this will be <literal>wd0</literal> for systems
with non-SCSI drives, or <literal>sd0</literal>
for systems with SCSI drives.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>General Options</title>
<para>These lines provide kernel support for various filesystems and
other options.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>options MATH_EMULATE</term>
<listitem>
<para>This line allows the kernel to simulate a math
co-processor if your computer does not have one (386 or
486SX). If you have a Pentium, a 486DX, or a 386 or 486SX
with a separate 387 or 487 chip, you can comment this line
out.</para>
<note>
<para>The normal math co-processor emulation routines that
come with FreeBSD are <emphasis>not</emphasis> very
accurate. If you do not have a math co-processor, and
you need the best accuracy, I recommend that you change
this option to <symbol>GPL_MATH_EMULATE</symbol> to use
the superior GNU math support, which is not included by
default for licensing reasons.</para>
</note>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>options "COMPAT_43"</term>
<listitem>
<para>Compatibility with 4.3BSD. Leave this in; some
programs will act strangely if you comment this
out.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>options BOUNCE_BUFFERS</term>
<listitem>
<para>ISA devices and EISA devices operating in an ISA
compatibility mode can only perform DMA (Direct Memory
Access) to memory below 16 megabytes. This option enables
such devices to work in systems with more than 16
megabytes of memory.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>options UCONSOLE</term>
<listitem>
<para>Allow users to grab the console, useful for X Windows.
For example, you can create a console xterm by typing
<command>xterm -C</command>, which will display any
<command>write</command>, <command>talk</command>, and other messages you receive, as well
as any console messages sent by the kernel.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>options SYSVSHM</term>
<listitem>
<para>This option provides for System V shared memory. The
most common use of this is the XSHM extension in X
Windows, which many graphics-intensive programs (such as
the movie player XAnim, and Linux DOOM) will automatically
take advantage of for extra speed. If you use the X
Window System, you will definitely want to include
this.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>options SYSVSEM</term>
<listitem>
<para>Support for System V semaphores. Less commonly used
but only adds a few hundred bytes to the kernel.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>options SYSVMSG</term>
<listitem>
<para>Support for System V messages. Again, only adds a few
hundred bytes to the kernel.</para>
<note>
<para>The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipcs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> command will tell
will list any processes using each of these System V
facilities.</para>
</note>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Filesystem Options</title>
<para>These options add support for various filesystems. You must
include at least one of these to support the device you boot from;
typically this will be <acronym>FFS</acronym> if you boot from a
hard drive, or <acronym>NFS</acronym> if you are booting a
diskless workstation from Ethernet. You can include other
commonly-used filesystems in the kernel, but feel free to comment
out support for filesystems you use less often (perhaps the MS-DOS
filesystem?), since they will be dynamically loaded from the
Loadable Kernel Module directory <filename>/lkm</filename> the
first time you mount a partition of that type.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>options FFS</term>
<listitem>
<para>The basic hard drive filesystem; leave it in if you
boot from the hard disk.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>options NFS</term>
<listitem>
<para>Network Filesystem. Unless you plan to mount
partitions from a Unix file server over Ethernet, you can
comment this out.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>options MSDOSFS</term>
<listitem>
<para>MS-DOS Filesystem. Unless you plan to mount a DOS
formatted hard drive partition at boot time, you can
safely comment this out. It will be automatically loaded
the first time you mount a DOS partition, as described
above. Also, the excellent <emphasis
remap=tt>mtools</emphasis> software (in the ports
collection) allows you to access DOS floppies without
having to mount and unmount them (and does not require
MSDOSFS at all).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>options "CD9660"</term>
<listitem>
<para>ISO 9660 filesystem for CD-ROMs. Comment it out if
you do not have a CD-ROM drive or only mount data CD's
occasionally (since it will be dynamically loaded the
first time you mount a data CD). Audio CD's do not need
this filesystem.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>options PROCFS</term>
<listitem>
<para>Process filesystem. This is a pretend filesystem
mounted on <filename>/proc</filename> which allows
programs like <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ps</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> to give you more
information on what processes are running.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>options MFS</term>
<listitem>
<para>Memory-mapped file system. This is basically a RAM
disk for fast storage of temporary files, useful if you
have a lot of swap space that you want to take advantage
of. A perfect place to mount an MFS partition is on the
<filename>/tmp</filename> directory, since many programs
store temporary data here. To mount an MFS RAM disk on
<filename>/tmp</filename>, add the following line to
<filename>/etc/fstab</filename> and then reboot or type
<command>mount /tmp</command>:
<informalexample>
<screen>/dev/wd1s2b /tmp mfs rw 0 0 </screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<note>
<para>Replace the <filename>/dev/wd1s2b</filename> with
the name of your swap partition, which will be listed in
your <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> as follows:
<informalexample>
<screen>/dev/wd1s2b none swap sw 0 0</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</note>
<note>
<para>Also, the <acronym>MFS</acronym> filesystem can
<emphasis>not</emphasis> be dynamically loaded, so you
<emphasis>must</emphasis> compile it into your kernel if
you want to experiment with it.</para>
</note>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>options "EXT2FS"</term>
<listitem>
<para>Linux's native file system. With ext2fs support you
are able to read and write to Linux partitions. This is
useful if you dual-boot FreeBSD and Linux and want to
share data between the two systems.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>options QUOTA</term>
<listitem>
<para>Enable disk quotas. If you have a public access
system, and do not want users to be able to overflow the
<filename>/home</filename> partition, you can establish
disk quotas for each user. Refer to the
<xref linkend="quotas" remap="Disk Quotas"> section for
more information.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Basic Controllers and Devices</title>
<para>These sections describe the basic disk, tape, and CD-ROM
controllers supported by FreeBSD. There are separate sections for
<xref linkend="kernelconfig-scsi"
remap="SCSI"> controllers and <xref
linkend="kernelconfig-network" remap="network"> cards.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>controller isa0</term>
<listitem>
<para>All PC's supported by FreeBSD have one of these. If
you have an IBM PS/2 (Micro Channel Architecture), then
you cannot run FreeBSD at this time.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>controller pci0</term>
<listitem>
<para>Include this if you have a PCI motherboard. This
enables auto-detection of PCI cards and gatewaying from
the PCI to the ISA bus.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>controller fdc0</term>
<listitem>
<para>Floppy drive controller: <literal>fd0</literal> is the <filename>A:</filename> floppy drive, and
<literal>fd1</literal> is the <filename>B:</filename> drive.
<literal>ft0</literal> is a QIC-80 tape drive
attached to the floppy controller. Comment out any lines
corresponding to devices you do not have.</para>
<note>
<para>QIC-80 tape support requires a separate filter
program called <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ft</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, see the manual
page for details.</para>
</note>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>controller wdc0</term>
<listitem>
<para>This is the primary IDE controller. <literal>wd0</literal> and <literal>wd1</literal> are the master and slave hard
drive, respectively. <literal>wdc1</literal> is
a secondary IDE controller where you might have a third or
fourth hard drive, or an IDE CD-ROM. Comment out the
lines which do not apply (if you have a SCSI hard drive,
you will probably want to comment out all six lines, for
example).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device wcd0<anchor
id="kernelconfig-atapi"></term>
<listitem>
<para>This device provides IDE CD-ROM support. Be sure to
leave <literal>wdc0</literal> uncommented, and
<literal>wdc1</literal> if you have more than
one IDE controller and your CD-ROM is on the second one
card. To use this, you must also include the line
<literal>options ATAPI</literal>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device npx0 at isa? port "IO_NPX" irq 13
vector npxintr</term>
<listitem>
<para><literal>npx0</literal> is the interface to
the floating point math unit in FreeBSD, either the
hardware co-processor or the software math emulator. It
is <emphasis>NOT</emphasis> optional.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device wt0 at isa? port 0x300 bio irq 5 drq
1 vector wtintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>Wangtek and Archive QIC-02/QIC-36 tape drive
support</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Proprietary CD-ROM support</term>
<listitem>
<para>The following drivers are for the so-called
<emphasis>proprietary</emphasis> CD-ROM drives. These
drives have their own controller card or might plug into a
sound card such as the SoundBlaster 16. They are
<emphasis>not</emphasis> IDE or SCSI. Most older
single-speed and double-speed CD-ROMs use these
interfaces, while newer quad-speeds are likely to be <xref
linkend="kernelconfig-atapi" remap="IDE"> or <xref
linkend="kernelconfig-scsi" remap="SCSI">.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>device mcd0 at isa? port 0x300 bio
irq 10 vector mcdintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>Mitsumi CD-ROM (LU002, LU005, FX001D).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device scd0 at isa? port 0x230
bio</term>
<listitem>
<para>Sony CD-ROM (CDU31, CDU33A).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>controller matcd0 at isa? port ?
bio</term>
<listitem>
<para>Matsushita/Panasonic CD-ROM (sold by Creative
Labs for SoundBlaster).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="kernelconfig-scsi">
<title>SCSI Device Support</title>
<para>This section describes the various SCSI controllers and
devices supported by FreeBSD.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>SCSI Controllers</term>
<listitem>
<para>The next ten or so lines include support for different
kinds of SCSI controllers. Comment out all except for the
one(s) you have:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>controller bt0 at isa? port
"IO_BT0" bio irq ? vector btintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>Most Buslogic controllers</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>controller uha0 at isa? port
"IO_UHA0" bio irq ? drq 5 vector uhaintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>UltraStor 14F and 34F</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>controller ahc0</term>
<listitem>
<para>Adaptec 274x/284x/294x</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>controller ahb0 at isa? bio irq ?
vector ahbintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>Adaptec 174x</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>controller aha0 at isa? port
"IO_AHA0" bio irq ? drq 5 vector ahaintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>Adaptec 154x</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>controller aic0 at isa? port
0x340 bio irq 11 vector aicintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>Adaptec 152x and sound cards using Adaptec
AIC-6360 (slow!)</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>controller nca0 at isa? port
0x1f88 bio irq 10 vector ncaintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>ProAudioSpectrum cards using NCR 5380 or
Trantor T130</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>controller sea0 at isa? bio irq 5
iomem 0xc8000 iosiz 0x2000 vector seaintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>Seagate ST01/02 8 bit controller
(slow!)</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>controller wds0 at isa? port
0x350 bio irq 15 drq 6 vector wdsintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>Western Digital WD7000 controller</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>controller ncr0</term>
<listitem>
<para>NCR 53C810, 53C815, 53C825, 53C860, 53C875 PCI
SCSI controller</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>options "SCSI_DELAY=15"</term>
<listitem>
<para>This causes the kernel to pause 15 seconds before
probing each SCSI device in your system. If you only have
IDE hard drives, you can ignore this, otherwise you will
probably want to lower this number, perhaps to 5 seconds,
to speed up booting. Of course if you do this, and
FreeBSD has trouble recognizing your SCSI devices, you
will have to raise it back up.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>controller scbus0</term>
<listitem>
<para>If you have any SCSI controllers, this line provides
generic SCSI support. If you do not have SCSI, you can
comment this, and the following three lines, out.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device sd0</term>
<listitem>
<para>Support for SCSI hard drives. </para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device st0</term>
<listitem>
<para>Support for SCSI tape drives.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device cd0</term>
<listitem>
<para>Support for SCSI CD-ROM drives.</para>
<para>Note that the number <literal>0</literal>
in the above entries is slightly misleading: all these
devices are automatically configured as they are found,
regardless of how many of them are hooked up to the SCSI
bus(es), and which target IDs they have.</para>
<para>If you want to <quote>wire down</quote> specific target IDs to
particular devices, refer to the appropriate section of
the LINT kernel config file.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Console, Bus Mouse, and X Server Support</title>
<para>You must choose one of these two console types, and, if you
plan to use the X Window System with the vt220 console, enable the
XSERVER option and optionally, a bus mouse or PS/2 mouse
device.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>device sc0 at isa? port "IO_KBD" tty irq 1
vector scintr</term>
<listitem>
<para><literal>sc0</literal> is the default
console driver, which resembles an SCO console. Since most
full-screen programs access the console through a terminal
database library like <emphasis>termcap</emphasis>, it
should not matter much whether you use this or <literal>vt0</literal>, the VT220 compatible console
driver. When you log in, set your TERM variable to
<quote>scoansi</quote> if full-screen programs have trouble running
under this console.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device vt0 at isa? port "IO_KBD" tty irq 1
vector pcrint</term>
<listitem>
<para>This is a VT220-compatible console driver, backwards
compatible to VT100/102. It works well on some laptops
which have hardware incompatibilities with <literal>sc0</literal>. Also, set your TERM variable
to <quote>vt100</quote> or <quote>vt220</quote> when you log in. This driver
might also prove useful when connecting to a large number
of different machines over the network, where the
<emphasis>termcap</emphasis> or
<emphasis>terminfo</emphasis> entries for the <emphasis
remap=tt>sc0</emphasis> device are often not available
-- <quote>vt100</quote> should be available on virtually any
platform.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>options "PCVT_FREEBSD=210"</term>
<listitem>
<para>Required with the <literal>vt0</literal> console driver.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>options XSERVER</term>
<listitem>
<para>Only applicable with the <literal>vt0</literal> console driver. This
includes code required to run the <emphasis
remap=tt>XFree86</emphasis> X Window Server
under the <literal>vt0</literal>
console driver.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device mse0 at isa? port 0x23c tty irq 5
vector ms</term>
<listitem>
<para>Use this device if you have a Logitech or ATI InPort
bus mouse card.</para>
<note>
<para>If you have a serial mouse, ignore these two lines,
and instead, make sure the appropriate <xref
linkend="kernelconfig-serial"
remap="serial"> port is enabled (probably
COM1).</para>
</note>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device psm0 at isa? port "IO_KBD"
conflicts tty irq 12 vector psmintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>Use this device if your mouse plugs into the PS/2
mouse port.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Serial and Parallel Ports</title>
<para>Nearly all systems have these. If you are attaching a printer
to one of these ports, the <xref linkend="printing"
remap="Printing"> section of the handbook is very useful. If
you are using modem, <xref linkend="dialup"
remap="Dialup access"> provides extensive detail on serial port
configuration for use with such devices.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty irq
4 vector siointr<anchor id="kernelconfig-serial"></term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=tt>sio0</emphasis> through <emphasis
remap=tt>sio3</emphasis> are the four serial ports
referred to as COM1 through COM4 in the MS-DOS world.
Note that if you have an internal modem on COM4 and a
serial port at COM2 you will have to change the IRQ of the
modem to 2 (for obscure technical reasons IRQ 2 = IRQ 9)
in order to access it from FreeBSD. If you have a
multiport serial card, check the manual page for
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>sio</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more information on the
proper values for these lines. Some video cards (notably
those based on S3 chips) use IO addresses of the form
<literal>0x*2e8</literal>, and since many cheap serial
cards do not fully decode the 16-bit IO address space,
they clash with these cards, making the COM4 port
practically unavailable.</para>
<para>Each serial port is required to have a unique IRQ
(unless you are using one of the multiport cards where
shared interrupts are supported), so the default IRQs for
COM3 and COM4 cannot be used.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device lpt0 at isa? port? tty irq 7 vector
lptintr</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=tt>lpt0</emphasis> through <emphasis
remap=tt>lpt2</emphasis> are the three printer ports you
could conceivably have. Most people just have one,
though, so feel free to comment out the other two lines if
you do not have them.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="kernelconfig-network">
<title>Networking</title>
<para>FreeBSD, as with Unix in general, places a
<emphasis>big</emphasis> emphasis on networking. Therefore, even
if you do not have an Ethernet card, pay attention to the
mandatory options and the dial-up networking support.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>options INET</term>
<listitem>
<para>Networking support. Leave it in even if you do not
plan to be connected to a network. Most programs require
at least loopback networking (i.e. making network
connections within your PC) so this is essentially
mandatory.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Ethernet cards</term>
<listitem>
<para>The next lines enable support for various Ethernet
cards. If you do not have a network card, you can comment
out all of these lines. Otherwise, you will want to leave
in support for your particular Ethernet card(s):</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>device de0</term>
<listitem>
<para>Ethernet adapters based on Digital Equipment
DC21040, DC21041 or DC21140 chips</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device fxp0</term>
<listitem>
<para>Intel EtherExpress Pro/100B</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device vx0</term>
<listitem>
<para>3Com 3C590 and 3C595 (buggy)</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device cx0 at isa? port 0x240 net
irq 15 drq 7 vector cxintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>Cronyx/Sigma multiport sync/async (with Cisco
or PPP framing)</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device ed0 at isa? port 0x280 net
irq 5 iomem 0xd8000 vector edintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>Western Digital and SMC 80xx and 8216; Novell
NE1000 and NE2000; 3Com 3C503; HP PC Lan Plus
(HP27247B and HP27252A)</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device el0 at isa? port 0x300 net
irq 9 vector elintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>3Com 3C501 (slow!)</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device eg0 at isa? port 0x310 net
irq 5 vector egintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>3Com 3C505</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device ep0 at isa? port 0x300 net
irq 10 vector epintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>3Com 3C509 (buggy)</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device fe0 at isa? port 0x240 net
irq ? vector feintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>Fujitsu MB86960A/MB86965A Ethernet</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device fea0 at isa? net irq ? vector
feaintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>DEC DEFEA EISA FDDI adapter</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device ie0 at isa? port 0x360 net
irq 7 iomem 0xd0000 vector ieintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>AT&amp;T StarLAN 10 and EN100; 3Com 3C507;
unknown NI5210</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device ix0 at isa? port 0x300 net
irq 10 iomem 0xd0000 iosiz 32768 vector
ixintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>Intel EtherExpress 16</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device le0 at isa? port 0x300 net
irq 5 iomem 0xd0000 vector le_intr</term>
<listitem>
<para>Digital Equipment EtherWorks 2 and EtherWorks
3 (DEPCA, DE100, DE101, DE200, DE201, DE202,
DE203, DE204, DE205, DE422)</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device lnc0 at isa? port 0x300 net
irq 10 drq 0 vector lncintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>Lance/PCnet cards (Isolan, Novell NE2100,
NE32-VL)</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device ze0 at isa? port 0x300 net
irq 5 iomem 0xd8000 vector zeintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>IBM/National Semiconductor PCMCIA ethernet
controller.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device zp0 at isa? port 0x300 net
irq 10 iomem 0xd8000 vector zpintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>3Com PCMCIA Etherlink III</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<note>
<para>With certain cards (notably the NE2000) you will
have to change the port and/or IRQ since there is no
<quote>standard</quote> location for these cards.</para>
</note>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>pseudo-device loop</term>
<listitem>
<para><literal>loop</literal> is the generic
loopback device for TCP/IP. If you telnet or FTP to
<hostid>localhost</hostid> (a.k.a. <hostid role="ipaddr">127.0.0.1</hostid>) it will come back at you
through this pseudo-device. Mandatory.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>pseudo-device ether</term>
<listitem>
<para><literal>ether</literal> is only needed if
you have an Ethernet card and includes generic Ethernet
protocol code.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>pseudo-device sl
<emphasis>number</emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para><literal>sl</literal> is for SLIP (Serial
Line Internet Protocol) support. This has been almost
entirely supplanted by PPP, which is easier to set up,
better suited for modem-to-modem connections, as well as
more powerful. The <emphasis>number</emphasis> after
<literal>sl</literal> specifies how many
simultaneous SLIP sessions to support. This handbook has
more information on setting up a SLIP <xref
linkend="slipc"
remap="client"> or <xref linkend="slips"
remap="server">.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>pseudo-device ppp
<emphasis>number</emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para><literal>ppp</literal> is for kernel-mode
PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) support for dial-up Internet
connections. There is also version of PPP implemented as a
user application that uses the <emphasis
remap=tt>tun</emphasis> and offers more flexibility and
features such as demand dialing. If you still want to use
this PPP driver, read the <xref linkend="ppp"
remap="kernel-mode PPP">
section of the handbook. As with the <literal>sl</literal> device,
<emphasis>number</emphasis> specifies how many
simultaneous PPP connections to support.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>pseudo-device tun
<emphasis>number</emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para><literal>tun</literal> is used by the
user-mode PPP software. This program is easy to set up and
very fast. It also has special features such as automatic
dial-on-demand. The number after <literal>tun</literal> specifies the number of
simultaneous PPP sessions to support. See the <xref
linkend="userppp"
remap="user-mode PPP"> section of the handbook for more
information.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>pseudo-device bpfilter
<emphasis>number</emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Berkeley packet filter. This pseudo-device allows
network interfaces to be placed in promiscuous mode,
capturing every packet on a broadcast network (e.g. an
ethernet). These packets can be captured to disk and/or
examined with the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tcpdump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> program.
Note that implementation of this capability can seriously
compromise your overall network security. The
<emphasis>number</emphasis> after bpfilter is the number
of interfaces that can be examined simultaneously.
Optional, not recommended except for those who are fully
aware of the potential pitfalls. Not all network cards
support this capability.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Sound cards</title>
<para>This is the first section containing lines that are not in the
GENERIC kernel. To include sound card support, you will have to
copy the appropriate lines from the LINT kernel (which contains
support for <emphasis>every</emphasis> device) as follows:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>controller snd0</term>
<listitem>
<para>Generic sound driver code. Required for all of the
following sound cards except <literal>pca</literal>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device pas0 at isa? port 0x388 irq 10 drq 6
vector pasintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>ProAudioSpectrum digital audio and MIDI.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device sb0 at isa? port 0x220 irq 7
conflicts drq 1 vector sbintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>SoundBlaster digital audio.</para>
<note>
<para>If your SoundBlaster is on a different IRQ (such as
5), change <literal>irq 7</literal> to, for
example, <literal>irq 5</literal> and remove
the <literal>conflicts</literal> keyword.
Also, you must add the line: <literal>options
"SBC_IRQ=5"</literal></para>
</note>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device sbxvi0 at isa? drq 5</term>
<listitem>
<para>SoundBlaster 16 digital 16-bit audio.</para>
<note>
<para>If your SB16 is on a different 16-bit DMA channel
(such as 6 or 7), change the <literal>drq
5</literal> keyword appropriately, and then add the
line: <literal>options "SB16_DMA=6"</literal></para>
</note>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device sbmidi0 at isa? port 0x330</term>
<listitem>
<para>SoundBlaster 16 MIDI interface. If you have a
SoundBlaster 16, you must include this line, or the kernel
will not compile.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device gus0 at isa? port 0x220 irq 10 drq 1
vector gusintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>Gravis Ultrasound.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device mss0 at isa? port 0x530 irq 10 drq 1
vector adintr</term>
<listitem>
<para>Microsoft Sound System.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device opl0 at isa? port 0x388
conflicts</term>
<listitem>
<para>AdLib FM-synthesis audio. Include this line for
AdLib, SoundBlaster, and ProAudioSpectrum users, if you
want to play MIDI songs with a program such as <command>playmidi</command> (in the ports
collection).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device mpu0 at isa? port 0x330 irq 6 drq
0</term>
<listitem>
<para>Roland MPU-401 stand-alone card.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device uart0 at isa? port 0x330 irq 5 vector
"m6850intr"</term>
<listitem>
<para>Stand-alone 6850 UART for MIDI.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>device pca0 at isa? port "IO_TIMER1"
tty<anchor id="kernelconfig-pcaudio"></term>
<listitem>
<para>Digital audio through PC speaker. This is going to be
very poor sound quality and quite CPU-intensive, so you
have been warned (but it does not require a sound
card).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<note>
<para>There is some additional documentation in
<filename>/usr/src/sys/i386/isa/sound/sound.doc</filename>.
Also, if you add any of these devices, be sure to create the
sound <xref linkend="kernelconfig-nodes"
remap="device nodes">.</para>
</note>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Pseudo-devices</title>
<para>Pseudo-device drivers are parts of the kernel that act like
device drivers but do not correspond to any actual hardware in the
machine. The <xref linkend="kernelconfig-network"
remap="network-related"> pseudo-devices are in that section,
while the remainder are here.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>pseudo-device gzip</term>
<listitem>
<para><literal>gzip</literal> allows you to run
FreeBSD programs that have been compressed with <command>gzip</command>. The programs in
<filename>/stand</filename> are compressed so it is a good
idea to have this option in your kernel.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>pseudo-device log</term>
<listitem>
<para><literal>log</literal> is used for logging
of kernel error messages. Mandatory.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>pseudo-device pty
<emphasis>number</emphasis><anchor
id="kernelconfig-ptys"></term>
<listitem>
<para><literal>pty</literal> is a
<quote>pseudo-terminal</quote> or simulated login port. It is used
by incoming <command>telnet</command> and
<command>rlogin</command> sessions, xterm, and
some other applications such as emacs. The
<emphasis>number</emphasis> indicates the number of
<literal>pty</literal>s to create. If you need
more than GENERIC default of 16 simultaneous xterm windows
and/or remote logins, be sure to increase this number
accordingly, up to a maximum of 64.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>pseudo-device snp
<emphasis>number</emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Snoop device. This pseudo-device allows one terminal
session to watch another using the
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>watch</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> command. Note that
implementation of this capability has important security
and privacy implications. The <emphasis>number</emphasis>
after snp is the total number of simultaneous snoop
sessions. Optional.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>pseudo-device vn</term>
<listitem>
<para>Vnode driver. Allows a file to be treated as a device
after being set up with the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vnconfig</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
command. This driver can be useful for manipulating
floppy disk images and using a file as a swap device (e.g.
an MS Windows swap file). Optional.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>pseudo-device ccd
<emphasis>number</emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Concatenated disks. This pseudo-device allows you to
concatenate multiple disk partitions into one large
<quote>meta</quote>-disk. The <emphasis>number</emphasis> after ccd
is the total number of concatenated disks (not total
number of disks that can be concatenated) that can be
created. (See <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ccd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> and
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ccdconfig</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> man pages for more
details.) Optional.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Joystick, PC Speaker, Miscellaneous</title>
<para>This section describes some miscellaneous hardware devices
supported by FreeBSD. Note that none of these lines are included
in the GENERIC kernel, you will have to copy them from this
handbook or the LINT kernel (which contains support for
<emphasis>every</emphasis> device):</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>device joy0 at isa? port "IO_GAME"</term>
<listitem>
<para>PC joystick device.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>pseudo-device speaker</term>
<listitem>
<para>Supports IBM BASIC-style noises through the PC
speaker. Some fun programs which use this are
<filename>/usr/sbin/spkrtest</filename>, which is a shell
script that plays some simple songs, and
<filename>/usr/games/piano</filename> which lets you play
songs using the keyboard as a simple piano (this file only
exists if you have installed the
<emphasis>games</emphasis> package). Also, the excellent
text role-playing game NetHack (in the ports collection)
can be configured to use this device to play songs when
you play musical instruments in the game.</para>
<para>See also the <xref linkend="kernelconfig-pcaudio"
remap="pca0"> device.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="kernelconfig-nodes">
<title>Making Device Nodes</title>
<para>Almost every device in the kernel has a corresponding <quote>node</quote>
entry in the <filename>/dev</filename> directory. These nodes look
like regular files, but are actually special entries into the kernel
which programs use to access the device. The shell script
<filename>/dev/MAKEDEV</filename>, which is executed when you first
install the operating system, creates nearly all of the device nodes
supported. However, it does not create <emphasis>all</emphasis> of
them, so when you add support for a new device, it pays to make sure
that the appropriate entries are in this directory, and if not, add
them. Here is a simple example:</para>
<para>Suppose you add the IDE CD-ROM support to the kernel. The line
to add is:
<informalexample>
<screen>controller wcd0</screen>
</informalexample> This means that you should look for some entries
that start with <filename>wcd0</filename> in the
<filename>/dev</filename> directory, possibly followed by a letter,
such as <token>c</token>, or preceded by the letter <token>r</token>, which means a <quote>raw</quote>
device. It turns out that those files are not there, so I must
change to the <filename>/dev</filename> directory and type:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV wcd0</screen>
</informalexample> When this script finishes, you will find that
there are now <filename>wcd0c</filename> and <filename>rwcd0c</filename> entries in <filename>/dev</filename> so
you know that it executed correctly.</para>
<para>For sound cards, the command:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV snd0</screen>
</informalexample> creates the appropriate entries.</para>
<note>
<para>When creating device nodes for devices such as sound cards, if
other people have access to your machine, it may be desirable to
protect the devices from outside access by adding them to the
<filename>/etc/fbtab</filename> file. See <command>man
fbtab</command> for more information.</para>
</note>
<para>Follow this simple procedure for any other non-GENERIC devices
which do not have entries.</para>
<note>
<para>All SCSI controllers use the same set of
<filename>/dev</filename> entries, so you do not need to create
these. Also, network cards and SLIP/PPP pseudo-devices do not
have entries in <filename>/dev</filename> at all, so you do not
have to worry about these either.</para>
</note>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="kernelconfig-trouble">
<title>If Something Goes Wrong</title>
<para>There are four categories of trouble that can occur when
building a custom kernel. They are:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>Config command fails</term>
<listitem>
<para>If the <command>config</command> command
fails when you give it your kernel description, you have
probably made a simple error somewhere. Fortunately,
<command>config</command> will print the line
number that it had trouble with, so you can quickly skip to
it with <command>vi</command>. For example, if
you see:
<informalexample>
<screen>config: line 17: syntax error</screen>
</informalexample> you can skip to the problem in <command>vi</command> by typing <COMMAND>17G</COMMAND> in command mode.
Make sure the keyword is typed correctly, by comparing it to
the GENERIC kernel or another reference.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Make command fails</term>
<listitem>
<para>If the <command>make</command> command fails,
it usually signals an error in your kernel description, but
not severe enough for <command>config</command>
to catch it. Again, look over your configuration, and if
you still cannot resolve the problem, send mail to the
&a.questions; with your kernel configuration, and it should
be diagnosed very quickly.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Kernel will not boot<anchor
id="kernelconfig-noboot"></term>
<listitem>
<para>If your new kernel does not boot, or fails to recognize
your devices, do not panic! Fortunately, BSD has an
excellent mechanism for recovering from incompatible
kernels. Simply type the name of the kernel you want to boot
from (i.e. <filename>kernel.old</filename>) at the FreeBSD boot prompt
instead of pressing return. When reconfiguring a kernel, it
is always a good idea to keep a kernel that is known to work
on hand.</para>
<para>After booting with a good kernel you can check over your
configuration file and try to build it again. One helpful
resource is the <filename>/var/log/messages</filename> file
which records, among other things, all of the kernel
messages from every successful boot. Also, the
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>dmesg</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> command will print the kernel
messages from the current boot.</para>
<note>
<para>If you are having trouble building a kernel, make sure
to keep a GENERIC, or some other kernel that is known to
work on hand as a different name that will not get erased
on the next build. You cannot rely on
<filename>kernel.old</filename> because when installing a
new kernel, <filename>kernel.old</filename> is overwritten
with the last installed kernel which may be
non-functional. Also, as soon as possible, move the
working kernel to the proper <filename>kernel</filename> location or
commands such as <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ps</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> will not work
properly. The proper command to <quote>unlock</quote> the
kernel file that <command>make</command> installs (in
order to move another kernel back permanently) is:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; chflags noschg /kernel</screen>
</informalexample> And, if you want to
<quote>lock</quote> your new kernel into place, or any
file for that matter, so that it cannot be moved or
tampered with:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; chflags schg /kernel</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</note>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Kernel works, but <command>ps</command> does not work any more!</term>
<listitem>
<para>If you have installed a different version of the kernel
from the one that the system utilities have been built with,
for example, an experimental <quote>2.2.0</quote> kernel on a
2.1.0-RELEASE system, many system-status commands like
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ps</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vmstat</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
will not work any more. You must recompile the <emphasis
remap=tt>libkvm</emphasis> library as well as these
utilities. This is one reason it is not normally a good
idea to use a different version of the kernel from the rest
of the operating system.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect1>
</chapter>
<chapter>
<title>Security</title>
<sect1
id="crypt">
<title>DES, MD5, and Crypt</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.wollman;<!-- <br> -->24 September
1995.</emphasis></para>
<para>In order to protect the security of passwords on UN*X systems
from being easily exposed, passwords have traditionally been
scrambled in some way. Starting with Bell Labs' Seventh Edition
Unix, passwords were encrypted using what the security people call a
<quote>one-way hash function</quote>. That is to say, the password is
transformed in such a way that the original password cannot be
regained except by brute-force searching the space of possible
passwords. Unfortunately, the only secure method that was available
to the AT&amp;T researchers at the time was based on DES, the Data
Encryption Standard. This causes only minimal difficulty for
commercial vendors, but is a serious problem for an operating system
like FreeBSD where all the source code is freely available, because
national governments in many places like to place restrictions on
cross-border transport of DES and other encryption software.</para>
<para>So, the FreeBSD team was faced with a dilemma: how could we
provide compatibility with all those UNIX systems out there while
still not running afoul of the law? We decided to take a dual-track
approach: we would make distributions which contained only a
non-regulated password scrambler, and then provide as a separate
add-on library the DES-based password hash. The password-scrambling
function was moved out of the C library to a separate library,
called <filename>libcrypt</filename> because the name of
the C function to implement it is <emphasis
remap=tt>crypt</emphasis>. In FreeBSD 1.x and some pre-release
2.0 snapshots, the non-regulated scrambler uses an insecure function
written by Nate Williams; in subsequent releases this was replaced
by a mechanism using the RSA Data Security, Inc., MD5 one-way hash
function. Because neither of these functions involve encryption,
they are believed to be exportable from the US and importable into
many other countries.</para>
<para>Meanwhile, work was also underway on the DES-based password hash
function. First, a version of the <emphasis
remap=tt>crypt</emphasis> function which was written outside the
US was imported, thus synchronizing the US and non-US code. Then,
the library was modified and split into two; the DES <emphasis
remap=tt>libcrypt</emphasis> contains only the code involved in
performing the one-way password hash, and a separate <emphasis
remap=tt>libcipher</emphasis> was created with the entry points
to actually perform encryption. The code was partitioned in this
way to make it easier to get an export license for the compiled
library.</para>
<sect2>
<title>Recognizing your <command>crypt</command>
mechanism</title>
<para>It is fairly easy to recognize whether a particular password
string was created using the DES- or MD5-based hash function. MD5
password strings always begin with the characters <quote><token>&#36;1&#36;</token></quote>. DES password strings do not
have any particular identifying characteristics, but they are
shorter than MD5 passwords, and are coded in a 64-character
alphabet which does not include the <quote><token>&#36;</token></quote> character, so a relatively short
string which doesn't begin with a dollar sign is very likely a DES
password.</para>
<para>Determining which library is being used on your system is
fairly easy for most programs, except for those like <command>init</command> which are statically linked. (For
those programs, the only way is to try them on a known password
and see if it works.) Programs which use <emphasis
remap=tt>crypt</emphasis> are linked against <emphasis
remap=tt>libcrypt</emphasis>, which for each type of library is
a symbolic link to the appropriate implementation. For example,
on a system using the DES versions:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; cd /usr/lib $ ls -l /usr/lib/libcrypt* lrwxr-xr-x 1
bin bin 13 Sep 5 12:50 libcrypt.a -&gt; libdescrypt.a
lrwxr-xr-x 1 bin bin 18 Sep 5 12:50 libcrypt.so.2.0 -&gt;
libdescrypt.so.2.0 lrwxr-xr-x 1 bin bin 15 Sep 5 12:50
libcrypt_p.a -&gt; libdescrypt_p.a</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>On a system using the MD5-based libraries, the same links will
be present, but the target will be <emphasis
remap=tt>libscrypt</emphasis> rather than <emphasis
remap=tt>libdescrypt</emphasis>.
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="skey">
<title>S/Key</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.wollman;<!-- <br> -->25 September
1995.</emphasis></para>
<para>S/Key is a one-time password scheme based on a one-way hash
function (in our version, this is MD4 for compatibility; other
versions have used MD5 and DES-MAC). S/Key has been a standard part
of all FreeBSD distributions since version 1.1.5, and is also
implemented on a large and growing number of other systems. S/Key
is a registered trademark of Bell Communications Research,
Inc.</para>
<para>There are three different sorts of passwords which we will talk
about in the discussion below. The first is your usual UNIX-style
or Kerberos password; we will call this a <quote>UNIX password</quote>. The
second sort is the one-time password which is generated by the S/Key
<command>key</command> program and accepted by the
<command>keyinit</command> program and the login
prompt; we will call this a <quote>one-time password</quote>. The final sort
of password is the secret password which you give to the <command>key</command> program (and sometimes the <command>keyinit</command> program) which it uses to generate
one-time passwords; we will call it a <quote>secret password</quote> or just
unqualified <quote>password</quote>. </para>
<para>The secret password does not necessarily have anything to do
with your UNIX password (while they can be the same, this is not
recommended). While UNIX passwords are limited to eight characters
in length, your S/Key secret password can be as long as you like; I
use seven-word phrases. In general, the S/Key system operates
completely independently of the UNIX password system.</para>
<para>There are in addition two other sorts of data involved in the
S/Key system; one is called the <quote>seed</quote> or (confusingly) <quote>key</quote>,
and consists of two letters and five digits, and the other is the
<quote>iteration count</quote> and is a number between 100 and 1. S/Key
constructs a one-time password from these components by
concatenating the seed and the secret password, then applying a
one-way hash (the RSA Data Security, Inc., MD4 secure hash function)
iteration-count times, and turning the result into six short English
words. The <command>login</command> and <command>su</command> programs keep track of the last one-time
password used, and the user is authenticated if the hash of the
user-provided password is equal to the previous password. Because a
one-way hash function is used, it is not possible to generate future
one-time passwords having overheard one which was successfully used;
the iteration count is decremented after each successful login to
keep the user and login program in sync. (When you get the
iteration count down to 1, it is time to reinitialize S/Key.)</para>
<para>There are four programs involved in the S/Key system which we
will discuss below. The <command>key</command> program
accepts an iteration count, a seed, and a secret password, and
generates a one-time password. The <command>keyinit</command> program is used to initialized S/Key,
and to change passwords, iteration counts, or seeds; it takes either
a secret password, or an iteration count, seed, and one-time
password. The <command>keyinfo</command> program
examines the <filename>/etc/skeykeys</filename> file and prints out
the invoking user's current iteration count and seed. Finally, the
<command>login</command> and <command>su</command> programs contain the necessary logic to
accept S/Key one-time passwords for authentication. The <command>login</command> program is also capable of disallowing
the use of UNIX passwords on connections coming from specified
addresses.</para>
<para>There are four different sorts of operations we will cover. The
first is using the <command>keyinit</command> program
over a secure connection to set up S/Key for the first time, or to
change your password or seed. The second operation is using the
<command>keyinit</command> program over an insecure
connection, in conjunction with the <command>key</command> program over a secure connection, to do
the same. The third is using the <command>key</command> program to log in over an insecure
connection. The fourth is using the <command>key</command> program to generate a number of keys
which can be written down or printed out to carry with you when
going to some location without secure connections to anywhere (like
at a conference).</para>
<sect2>
<title>Secure connection initialization</title>
<para>To initialize S/Key, change your password, or change your seed
while logged in over a secure connection (e.g., on the console of
a machine), use the <command>keyinit</command>
command without any parameters while logged in as yourself:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; keyinit Updating wollman: )
these will not appear if you Old key: ha73895
) have not used S/Key before Reminder - Only use this method
if you are directly connected. If you are using telnet or
rlogin exit with no password and use keyinit -s. Enter secret
password: ) I typed my pass phrase here
Again secret password: ) I typed it again ID
wollman s/key is 99 ha73896 ) discussed below SAG
HAS FONT GOUT FATE BOOM )</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>There is a lot of information here. At the `Enter secret
password:' prompt, you should enter some password or phrase (I use
phrases of minimum seven words) which will be needed to generate
login keys. The line starting `ID' gives the parameters of your
particular S/Key instance: your login name, the iteration count,
and seed. When logging in with S/Key, the system will remember
these parameters and present them back to you so you do not have
to remember them. The last line gives the particular one-time
password which corresponds to those parameters and your secret
password; if you were to re-login immediately, this one-time
password is the one you would use.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Insecure connection initialization</title>
<para>To initialize S/Key or change your password or seed over an
insecure connection, you will need to already have a secure
connection to some place where you can run the <command>key</command> program; this might be in the form of a
desk accessory on a Macintosh, or a shell prompt on a machine you
trust (we will show the latter). You will also need to make up an
iteration count (100 is probably a good value), and you may make
up your own seed or use a randomly-generated one. Over on the
insecure connection (to the machine you are initializing), use the
<command>keyinit -s</command> command:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; keyinit -s Updating wollman: Old key: kh94741
Reminder you need the 6 English words from the skey command.
Enter sequence count from 1 to 9999: 100 ) I typed this
Enter new key [default kh94742]: s/key 100 kh94742</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>To accept the default seed (which the `keyinit' program
confusingly calls a `key'), press return. Then move over to your
secure connection or S/Key desk accessory, and give it the same
parameters:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; key 100 kh94742 Reminder - Do not use this program
while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password:
) I typed my secret password HULL NAY YANG TREE TOUT
VETO</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Now switch back over to the insecure connection, and copy the
one-time password generated by <command>key</command>
over to the <command>keyinit</command>
program:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>s/key access password: HULL NAY YANG TREE TOUT VETO ID
wollman s/key is 100 kh94742 HULL NAY YANG TREE TOUT
VETO</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>The rest of the description from the previous section applies
here as well.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Diversion: a login prompt</title>
<para>Before explaining how to generate one-time passwords, we
should go over an S/Key login prompt:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; telnet himalia Trying 18.26.0.186... Connected to
himalia.lcs.mit.edu. Escape character is '^]'. s/key 92
hi52030 Password:</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Note that, before prompting for a password, the login program
prints out the iteration number and seed which you will need in
order to generate the appropriate key. You will also find a
useful feature (not shown here): if you press return at the
password prompt, the login program will turn echo on, so you can
see what you are typing. This can be extremely useful if you are
attempting to type in an S/Key by hand, such as from a
printout.</para>
<para>If this machine were configured to disallow UNIX passwords
over a connection from my machine, the prompt would have also
included the annotation <emphasis remap=tt>(s/key
required)</emphasis>, indicating that only S/Key one-time
passwords will be accepted.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Generating a single one-time password</title>
<para>Now, to generate the one-time password needed to answer this
login prompt, we use a trusted machine and the <command>key</command> program. (There are versions of the
<command>key</command> program from DOS and Windows
machines, and there is an S/Key desk accessory for Macintosh
computers as well.) The command-line <command>key</command> program takes as its parameters the
iteration count and seed; you can cut-and-paste right from the
login prompt starting at <emphasis remap=tt>key</emphasis> to
the end of the line. Thus:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; key 92 hi52030 ) pasted from
previous section Reminder - Do not use this program while
logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password:
) I typed my secret password ADEN BED WOLF HAW HOT
STUN</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>And in the other window:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>s/key 92 hi52030 ) from
previous section Password: (turning echo on) Password:ADEN BED
WOLF HAW HOT STUN Last login: Wed Jun 28 15:31:00 from
halloran-eldar.l [etc.]</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>This is the easiest mechanism <emphasis>if</emphasis> you have
a trusted machine. There is a Java S/Key <command>key</command> applet, <ulink
URL="http://www.cs.umd.edu/~harry/jotp/src.html">The Java OTP
Calculator</ulink>, that you can download and run locally on any
Java supporting brower.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Generating multiple one-time passwords</title>
<para>Sometimes we have to go places where no trusted machines or
connections are available. In this case, it is possible to use
the <command>key</command> command to generate a
number of one-time passwords in the same command; these can then
be printed out. For example:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; key -n 25 57 zz99999 Reminder - Do not use this
program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret
password: 33: WALT THY MALI DARN NIT HEAD 34: ASK RICE BEAU
GINA DOUR STAG [...] 56: AMOS BOWL LUG FAT CAIN INCH 57:
GROW HAYS TUN DISH CAR BALM </screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>The <option>-n 25</option> requests twenty-five keys in
sequence; the <emphasis remap=tt>57</emphasis> indicates the
<emphasis>ending</emphasis> iteration number; and the rest is as
before. Note that these are printed out in
<emphasis>reverse</emphasis> order of eventual use. If you are
really paranoid, you might want to write the results down by hand;
otherwise you can cut-and-paste into <command>lpr</command>. Note that each line shows both the
iteration count and the one-time password; you may still find it
handy to scratch off passwords as you use them.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Restricting use of UNIX passwords</title>
<para>The configuration file <filename>/etc/skey.access</filename>
can be used to configure restrictions on the use of UNIX passwords
based on the host name, user name, terminal port, or IP address of
a login session. The complete format of the file is documented in
the <filename>skey.access</filename>(5) manual page; there are
also some security cautions there which should be read before
depending on this file for security.</para>
<para>If there is no <filename>/etc/skey.access</filename> file
(which is the default state as FreeBSD is shipped), then all users
will be allowed to use UNIX passwords. If the file exists,
however, then all users will be required to use S/Key unless
explicitly permitted to do otherwise by configuration statements
in the <filename>skey.access</filename> file. In all cases, UNIX
passwords are permitted on the console.</para>
<para>Here is a sample configuration file which illustrates the
three most common sorts of configuration statements:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>permit internet 18.26.0.0 255.255.0.0 permit user jrl
permit port ttyd0</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>The first line (<literal>permit
internet</literal>) allows users whose IP source address
(which is vulnerable to spoofing) matches the specified value and
mask, to use UNIX passwords. This should not be considered a
security mechanism, but rather, a means to remind authorized users
that they are using an insecure network and need to use S/Key for
authentication.</para>
<para>The second line (<literal>permit user</literal>)
allows the specified user to use UNIX passwords at any time.
Generally speaking, this should only be used for people who are
either unable to use the <command>key</command>
program, like those with dumb terminals, or those who are
uneducable.</para>
<para>The third line (<literal>permit port</literal>)
allows all users logging in on the specified terminal line to use
UNIX passwords; this would be used for dial-ups.</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="kerberos">
<title>Kerberos</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.markm; (based on contribution by
&a.md;).</emphasis></para>
<para>Kerberos is a network add-on system/protocol that allows users
to authenticate themselves through the services of a secure server.
Services such as remote login, remote copy, secure inter-system file
copying and other high-risk tasks are made considerably safer and
more controllable.</para>
<para>The following instructions can be used as a guide on how to set
up Kerberos as distributed for FreeBSD. However, you should refer to
the relevant manual pages for a complete description.</para>
<para>In FreeBSD, the Kerberos is not that from the original
4.4BSD-Lite, distribution, but eBones, which had been previously
ported to FreeBSD 1.1.5.1, and was sourced from outside the
USA/Canada, and is thus available to system owners outside those
countries.</para>
<para>For those needing to get a legal foreign distribution of this
software, please <emphasis>DO NOT</emphasis> get it from a USA or
Canada site. You will get that site in <emphasis>big</emphasis>
trouble! A legal copy of this is available from
<filename>skeleton.mikom.csir.co.za</filename>, which is in South
Africa.</para>
<sect2>
<title>Creating the initial database</title>
<para>This is done on the Kerberos server only. First make sure that
you do not have any old Kerberos databases around. You should
change to the directory <filename>/etc/kerberosIV</filename> and
check that only the following files are present:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; cd /etc/kerberosIV &prompt.root; ls README
krb.conf krb.realms</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>If any additional files (such as
<filename>principal.*</filename> or <symbol>master_key</symbol>)
exist, then use the <symbol>kdb_destroy</symbol> command to
destroy the old Kerberos database, of if Kerberos is not running,
simply delete the extra files with <emphasis
remap=tt>rm</emphasis>.</para>
<para>You should now edit the <filename>krb.conf</filename> and
<filename>krb.realms</filename> files to define your Kerberos
realm. In this case the realm will be
<filename>GRONDAR.ZA</filename> and the server is
<filename>grunt.grondar.za</filename>. We edit or create the
<filename>krb.conf</filename> file:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; cat krb.conf GRONDAR.ZA GRONDAR.ZA
grunt.grondar.za admin server CS.BERKELEY.EDU
okeeffe.berkeley.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos.mit.edu
ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-1.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU
kerberos-2.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-3.mit.edu
LCS.MIT.EDU kerberos.lcs.mit.edu TELECOM.MIT.EDU bitsy.mit.edu
ARC.NASA.GOV trident.arc.nasa.gov</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>In this case, the other realms do not need to be there. They
are here as an example of how a machine may be made aware of
multiple realms. You may wish to not include them for
simplicity.</para>
<para>The first line names the realm in which this system works. The
other lines contain realm/host entries. The first item on a line
is a realm, and the second is a host in that realm that is acting
as a <quote>key distribution centre</quote>. The words <quote>admin server</quote>
following a hosts name means that host also provides an
administrative database server. For further explanation of these
terms, please consult the Kerberos man pages.</para>
<para>Now we have to add <filename>grunt.grondar.za</filename> to
the <filename>GRONDAR.ZA</filename> realm and also add an entry to
put all hosts in the <filename>.grondar.za</filename> domain in
the <filename>GRONDAR.ZA</filename> realm. The
<filename>krb.realms</filename> file would be updated as
follows:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; cat krb.realms grunt.grondar.za GRONDAR.ZA
.grondar.za GRONDAR.ZA .berkeley.edu CS.BERKELEY.EDU .MIT.EDU
ATHENA.MIT.EDU .mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Again, the other realms do not need to be there. They are here
as an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple
realms. You may wish to remove them to simplify things.</para>
<para>The first line puts the <emphasis>specific</emphasis>
system into the named realm. The rest of the lines show how to
default systems of a particular subdomain to a named realm.</para>
<para>Now we are ready to create the database. This only needs to
run on the Kerberos server (or Key Distribution Centre). Issue the
<symbol>kdb_init</symbol> command to do this:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; kdb_init Realm name [default ATHENA.MIT.EDU ]:
GRONDAR.ZA You will be prompted for the database Master
Password. It is important that you NOT FORGET this password.
Enter Kerberos master key: </screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Now we have to save the key so that servers on the local
machine can pick it up. Use the <command>kstash</command> command to do this.</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; kstash Enter Kerberos master key: Current
Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered.
BEWARE!</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>This saves the encrypted master password in
<filename>/etc/kerberosIV/master_key</filename>.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Making it all run</title>
<para>Two principals need to be added to the database for <emphasis
remap=it>each</emphasis> system that will be secured with
Kerberos. Their names are <command>kpasswd</command>
and <command>rcmd</command> These two principals are
made for each system, with the instance being the name of the
individual system.</para>
<para>These daemons, <command>kpasswd</command> and
<command>rcmd</command> allow other systems to change
Kerberos passwords and run commands like <command>rcp</command>, <command>rlogin</command>
and <command>rsh</command>.</para>
<para>Now let's add these entries:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos
master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master
key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in
[brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value.
Principal name: passwd Instance: grunt &lt;Not found&gt;,
Create [y] ? y Principal: passwd, Instance: grunt,
kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: &lt;---- enter
RANDOM here Verifying password New Password:
&lt;---- enter RANDOM here Random password [y] ? y Principal's
new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [
2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ?
Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: rcmd Instance:
grunt &lt;Not found&gt;, Create [y] ? Principal: rcmd,
Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password:
&lt;---- enter RANDOM here Verifying password New Password:
&lt;---- enter RANDOM here Random password [y] ? Principal's
new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [
2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ?
Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name:
&lt;---- null entry here will cause an exit</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Creating the server file</title>
<para>We now have to extract all the instances which define the
services on each machine. For this we use the
<symbol>ext_srvtab</symbol> command. This will create a file which
must be copied or moved <emphasis>by secure
means</emphasis> to each Kerberos client's /etc/kerberosIV
directory. This file must be present on each server and client,
and is crucial to the operation of Kerberos.</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; ext_srvtab grunt Enter Kerberos master key:
Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered.
BEWARE! Generating 'grunt-new-srvtab'....</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Now, this command only generates a temporary file which must
be renamed to <filename>srvtab</filename> so that all the
server can pick it up. Use the <command>mv</command>
command to move it into place on the original system:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; mv grunt-new-srvtab srvtab</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>If the file is for a client system, and the network is not
deemed safe, then copy the <emphasis
remap=tt>&lt;client&gt;-new-srvtab</emphasis> to removable media
and transport it by secure physical means. Be sure to rename it to
<filename>srvtab</filename> in the client's
<filename>/etc/kerberosIV</filename> directory, and make sure it
is mode 600:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; mv grumble-new-srvtab srvtab &prompt.root; chmod 600
srvtab</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Populating the database</title>
<para>We now have to add some user entries into the database. First
let's create an entry for the user <emphasis
remap=it>jane</emphasis>. Use the <symbol>kdb_edit</symbol>
command to do this:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos
master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master
key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in
[brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value.
Principal name: jane Instance: &lt;Not found&gt;, Create [y] ?
y Principal: jane, Instance: , kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password:
&lt;---- enter a secure password here Verifying password New
Password: &lt;---- re-enter the password
here Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter
yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes)
[ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name:
&lt;---- null entry here will cause an exit</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Testing it all out</title>
<para>First we have to start the Kerberos daemons. NOTE that if you
have correctly edited your <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> then
this will happen automatically when you reboot. This is only
necessary on the Kerberos server. Kerberos clients will
automagically get what they need from the
<filename>/etc/kerberosIV</filename> directory.</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; kerberos &amp; &prompt.root; Kerberos server starting
Sleep forever on error Log file is /var/log/kerberos.log
Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered.
BEWARE! Current Kerberos master key version is 1 Local realm:
GRONDAR.ZA &prompt.root; kadmind -n &amp; &prompt.root; KADM Server KADM0.0A
initializing Please do not use 'kill -9' to kill this job, use
a regular kill instead Current Kerberos master key version is
1. Master key entered. BEWARE!</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Now we can try using the <command>kinit</command>
command to get a ticket for the id <emphasis
remap=it>jane</emphasis> that we created above:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; kinit jane MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za)
Kerberos Initialization for "jane" Password: </screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Try listing the tokens using <command>klist</command> to see if we really have them:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; klist Ticket file: /tmp/tkt245 Principal:
jane@GRONDAR.ZA Issued Expires Principal
Apr 30 11:23:22 Apr 30 19:23:22
krbtgt.GRONDAR.ZA@GRONDAR.ZA</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Now try changing the password using <command>passwd</command> to check if the kpasswd daemon can
get authorization to the Kerberos database:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; passwd realm GRONDAR.ZA Old password for jane:
New Password for jane: Verifying password New Password for
jane: Password changed.</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Adding <command>su</command> privileges</title>
<para>Kerberos allows us to give <emphasis>each</emphasis>
user who needs root privileges their own <emphasis
remap=it>separate</emphasis> <command>su</command>password. We could now add an id which is
authorized to <command>su</command> to <emphasis
remap=it>root</emphasis>. This is controlled by having an
instance of <emphasis remap=it>root</emphasis> associated with a
principal. Using <symbol>kdb_edit</symbol> we can create the
entry <filename>jane.root</filename> in the Kerberos
database:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos
master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master
key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in
[brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value.
Principal name: jane Instance: root &lt;Not found&gt;, Create
[y] ? y Principal: jane, Instance: root, kdc_key_ver: 1 New
Password: &lt;---- enter a SECURE password
here Verifying password New Password:
&lt;---- re-enter the password here Principal's new key
version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ]
? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? 12 &lt;--- Keep
this short! Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name:
&lt;---- null entry here will cause an exit</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Now try getting tokens for it to make sure it works:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; kinit jane.root MIT Project Athena
(grunt.grondar.za) Kerberos Initialization for "jane.root"
Password:
</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Now we need to add the user to root's
<filename>.klogin</filename> file:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; cat /root/.klogin jane.root@GRONDAR.ZA</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Now try doing the <command>su</command>:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; su Password: &prompt.root;
</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>and take a look at what tokens we have:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; klist Ticket file: /tmp/tkt_root_245 Principal:
jane.root@GRONDAR.ZA Issued Expires
Principal May 2 20:43:12 May 3 04:43:12
krbtgt.GRONDAR.ZA@GRONDAR.ZA</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Using other commands</title>
<para>In an earlier example, we created a principal called <emphasis
remap=tt>jane</emphasis> with an instance <emphasis
remap=tt>root</emphasis>. This was based on a user with the same
name as the principal, and this is a Kerberos default; that a
<emphasis>&lt;principal&gt;.&lt;instance&gt;</emphasis> of the
form <emphasis>&lt;username&gt;.</emphasis><emphasis
remap=tt>root</emphasis> will allow that
<emphasis>&lt;username&gt;</emphasis> to <command>su</command> to root if the necessary entries are in
the <filename>.klogin</filename> file in <emphasis
remap=tt>root</emphasis>'s home directory:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; cat /root/.klogin jane.root@GRONDAR.ZA</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Likewise, if a user has in their own home directory lines of
the form:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user;cat ~/.klogin jane@GRONDAR.ZA
jack@GRONDAR.ZA</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>This allows anyone in the <filename>GRONDAR.ZA</filename>
realm who has authenticated themselves to
<emphasis>jane</emphasis> or <emphasis>jack</emphasis> (via
<command>kinit</command>, see above) access to
<command>rlogin</command> to
<emphasis>jane</emphasis>'s account or files on this system
(<hostid>grunt</hostid>) via <command>rlogin</command>, <command>rsh</command> or
<command>rcp</command>.</para>
<para>For example, Jane now logs into another system, using
Kerberos:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; kinit MIT Project Athena
(grunt.grondar.za) Password: %prompt.user; rlogin grunt
Last login: Mon May 1 21:14:47 from grumble Copyright (c)
1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994 The Regents of
the University of California. All rights reserved. FreeBSD
BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995
&prompt.user;</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Or Jack logs into Jane's account on the same machine (Jane
having set up the <filename>.klogin</filename> file as above, and
the person in charge of Kerberos having set up principal
<emphasis>jack</emphasis> with a null instance:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; kinit &prompt.user; rlogin grunt
-l jane MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za) Password: Last
login: Mon May 1 21:16:55 from grumble Copyright (c) 1980,
1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994 The Regents of the
University of California. All rights reserved. FreeBSD
BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995
[jane@grunt 10578]</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="firewalls">
<title>Firewalls</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.gpalmer; and
&a.alex;.</emphasis></para>
<para>Firewalls are an area of increasing interest for people who are
connected to the Internet, and are even finding applications on
private networks to provide enhanced security. This section will
hopefully explain what firewalls are, how to use them, and how to
use the facilities provided in the FreeBSD kernel to implement
them.</para>
<note>
<para>People often think that having a firewall between your
companies internal network and the <quote>Big Bad Internet</quote>
will solve all your security problems.</para>
<para>It may help, but a poorly setup firewall system is more of a
security risk than not having one at all. A firewall can only add
another layer of security to your systems, but they will not be
able to stop a really determined hacker from penetrating your
internal network. If you let internal security lapse because you
believe your firewall to be impenetrable, you have just made the
hackers job that bit easier.</para>
</note>
<sect2>
<title>What is a firewall?</title>
<para>There are currently two distinct types of firewalls in common
use on the Internet today. The first type is more properly called
a <emphasis remap=bf>packet filtering router</emphasis>, where the
kernel on a multi-homed machine chooses whether to forward or
block packets based on a set of rules. The second type, known as
<emphasis remap=bf>proxy servers</emphasis>, rely on daemons to
provide authentication and to forward packets, possibly on a
multi-homed machine which has kernel packet forwarding
disabled.</para>
<para>Sometimes sites combine the two types of firewalls, so that
only a certain machine (known as a <emphasis remap=bf>bastion
host</emphasis>) is allowed to send packets through a packet
filtering router onto an internal network. Proxy services are run
on the bastion host, which are generally more secure than normal
authentication mechanisms.</para>
<para>FreeBSD comes with a kernel packet filter (known as
<application>IPFW</application>), which is what the rest of this section
will concentrate on. Proxy servers can be built on FreeBSD from
third party software, but there is such a variety of proxy servers
available that it would be impossible to cover them in this
document.</para>
<sect3
id="firewalls-packet-filters">
<title>Packet filtering routers</title>
<para>A router is a machine which forwards packets between two or
more networks. A packet filtering router has an extra piece of
code in its kernel, which compares each packet to a list of
rules before deciding if it should be forwarded or not. Most
modern IP routing software has packet filtering code in it,
which defaults to forwarding all packets. To enable the filters,
you need to define a set of rules for the filtering code, so
that it can decide if the packet should be allowed to pass or
not.</para>
<para>To decide if a packet should be passed on or not, the code
looks through its set of rules for a rule which matches the
contents of this packets headers. Once a match is found, the
rule action is obeyed. The rule action could be to drop the
packet, to forward the packet, or even to send an ICMP message
back to the originator. Only the first match counts, as the
rules are searched in order. Hence, the list of rules can be
referred to as a <quote>rule chain</quote>.</para>
<para>The packet matching criteria varies depending on the
software used, but typically you can specify rules which depend
on the source IP address of the packet, the destination IP
address, the source port number, the destination port number
(for protocols which support ports), or even the packet type
(UDP, TCP, ICMP, etc).</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="firewalls-proxy-servers">
<title>Proxy servers</title>
<para>Proxy servers are machines which have had the normal system
daemons (telnetd, ftpd, etc) replaced with special servers.
These servers are called <emphasis remap=bf>proxy
servers</emphasis> as they normally only allow onward
connections to be made. This enables you to run (for example) a
proxy telnet server on your firewall host, and people can telnet
in to your firewall from the outside, go through some
authentication mechanism, and then gain access to the internal
network (alternatively, proxy servers can be used for signals
coming from the internal network and heading out).</para>
<para>Proxy servers are normally more secure than normal servers,
and often have a wider variety of authentication mechanisms
available, including <quote>one-shot</quote> password systems so that even
if someone manages to discover what password you used, they will
not be able to use it to gain access to your systems as the
password instantly expires. As they do not actually give users
access to the host machine, it becomes a lot more difficult for
someone to install backdoors around your security system.</para>
<para>Proxy servers often have ways of restricting access further,
so that only certain hosts can gain access to the servers, and
often they can be set up so that you can limit which users can
talk to which destination machine. Again, what facilities are
available depends largely on what proxy software you
choose.</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>What does IPFW allow me to do?</title>
<para><application>IPFW</application>, the software supplied with FreeBSD,
is a packet filtering and accounting system which resides in the
kernel, and has a user-land control utility,
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipfw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>. Together, they allow you to define and
query the rules currently used by the kernel in its routing
decisions.</para>
<para>There are two related parts to <application>IPFW</application>. The
firewall section allows you to perform packet filtering. There is
also an IP accounting section which allows you to track usage of
your router, based on similar rules to the firewall section. This
allows you to see (for example) how much traffic your router is
getting from a certain machine, or how much WWW (World Wide Web)
traffic it is forwarding.</para>
<para>As a result of the way that <application>IPFW</application> is
designed, you can use <application>IPFW</application> on non-router
machines to perform packet filtering on incoming and outgoing
connections. This is a special case of the more general use of
<application>IPFW</application>, and the same commands and techniques
should be used in this situation.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Enabling IPFW on FreeBSD</title>
<para>As the main part of the <application>IPFW</application> system lives
in the kernel, you will need to add one or more options to your
kernel configuration file, depending on what facilities you want,
and recompile your kernel. See
<xref linkend="kernelconfig" remap="reconfiguring the kernel"> for
more details on how to recompile your kernel.</para>
<para>There are currently three kernel configuration options
relevant to IPFW:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>options IPFIREWALL</term>
<listitem>
<para>Compiles into the kernel the code for packet
filtering.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE</term>
<listitem>
<para>Enables code to allow logging of packets through
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>syslogd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>. Without this option, even
if you specify that packets should be logged in the filter
rules, nothing will happen.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT=10</term>
<listitem>
<para>Limits the number of packets logged through
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>syslogd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> on a per entry basis. You
may wish to use this option in hostile environments in
which you want to log firewall activity, but do not want
to be open to a denial of service attack via syslog
flooding.</para>
<para>When a chain entry reaches the packet limit specified,
logging is turned off for that particular entry. To
resume logging, you will need to reset the associated
counter using the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipfw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
utility:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; ipfw zero 4500</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Where 4500 is the chain entry you wish to continue
logging.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>Previous versions of FreeBSD contained an
<symbol>IPFIREWALL_ACCT</symbol> option. This is now obsolete as
the firewall code automatically includes accounting
facilities.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Configuring IPFW</title>
<para>The configuration of the <application>IPFW</application> software is
done through the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipfw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> utility. The syntax
for this command looks quite complicated, but it is relatively
simple once you understand its structure.</para>
<para>There are currently four different command categories used by
the utility: addition/deletion, listing, flushing, and clearing.
Addition/deletion is used to build the rules that control how
packets are accepted, rejected, and logged. Listing is used to
examine the contents of your rule set (otherwise known as the
chain) and packet counters (accounting). Flushing is used to
remove all entries from the chain. Clearing is used to zero out
one or more accounting entries.</para>
<sect3>
<title>Altering the IPFW rules</title>
<para>The syntax for this form of the command is:
<cmdsynopsis>
<command>ipfw</command>
<arg>-N</arg>
<arg choice="plain">command</arg>
<arg>index</arg>
<arg choice="plain">action</arg>
<arg>log</arg>
<arg choice="plain">protocol</arg>
<arg choice="plain">addresses</arg>
<arg>options</arg>
</cmdsynopsis>
</para>
<para>There is one valid flag when using this form of the
command:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>-N</term>
<listitem>
<para>Resolve addresses and service names in
output.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>The <emphasis>command</emphasis> given can be shortened to
the shortest unique form. The valid
<emphasis>commands</emphasis> are:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>add</term>
<listitem>
<para>Add an entry to the firewall/accounting rule
list</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>delete</term>
<listitem>
<para>Delete an entry from the firewall/accounting rule
list</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>Previous versions of <application>IPFW</application> used separate
firewall and accounting entries. The present version provides
packet accounting with each firewall entry.</para>
<para>If an <emphasis remap=tt>index</emphasis> value is supplied,
it used to place the entry at a specific point in the chain.
Otherwise, the entry is placed at the end of the chain at an
index 100 greater than the last chain entry (this does not
include the default policy, rule 65535, deny).</para>
<para>The <emphasis remap=bf>log</emphasis> option causes matching
rules to be output to the system console if the kernel was
compiled with <symbol>IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE</symbol>.</para>
<para>Valid <emphasis>actions</emphasis> are:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>reject</term>
<listitem>
<para>Drop the packet, and send an ICMP host or port
unreachable (as appropriate) packet to the
source.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>allow</term>
<listitem>
<para>Pass the packet on as normal. (aliases: <emphasis
remap=bf>pass</emphasis> and <emphasis
remap=bf>accept</emphasis>)</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>deny</term>
<listitem>
<para>Drop the packet. The source is not notified via an
ICMP message (thus it appears that the packet never
arrived at the destination).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>count</term>
<listitem>
<para>Update packet counters but do not allow/deny the
packet based on this rule. The search continues with
the next chain entry.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>Each <emphasis>action</emphasis> will be recognized by the
shortest unambiguous prefix.</para>
<para>The <emphasis>protocols</emphasis> which can be specified
are:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>all</term>
<listitem>
<para>Matches any IP packet</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>icmp</term>
<listitem>
<para>Matches ICMP packets</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>tcp</term>
<listitem>
<para>Matches TCP packets</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>udp</term>
<listitem>
<para>Matches UDP packets</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>The <emphasis>address</emphasis> specification is:
<informalexample>
<screen><emphasis remap=bf>from</emphasis>
&lt;<filename>address/mask</filename>&gt;[<emphasis>port</emphasis>] <emphasis remap=bf>to</emphasis> &lt;<filename>address/mask</filename>&gt;[<emphasis>port</emphasis>] [<emphasis remap=bf>via</emphasis> &lt;<emphasis>interface</emphasis>&gt;]</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>You can only specify <emphasis>port</emphasis> in
conjunction with <emphasis>protocols</emphasis> which support
ports (UDP and TCP).</para>
<para>The <emphasis remap=bf>via</emphasis> is optional and may
specify the IP address or domain name of a local IP interface,
or an interface name (e.g. <emphasis remap=tt>ed0</emphasis>) to
match only packets coming through this interface. Interface unit
numbers can be specified with an optional wildcard. For example,
<emphasis remap=tt>ppp*</emphasis> would match all kernel PPP
interfaces.</para>
<para>The syntax used to specify an
<filename>&lt;address/mask&gt;</filename> is:
<informalexample>
<screen>&lt;address&gt;</screen>
</informalexample> or
<informalexample>
<screen>&lt;address&gt;/mask-bits</screen>
</informalexample> or
<informalexample>
<screen>&lt;address&gt;:mask-pattern</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>A valid hostname may be specified in place of the IP
address. <emphasis remap=tt>mask-bits</emphasis> is a decimal
number representing how many bits in the address mask should be
set. e.g. specifying
<informalexample>
<screen>192.216.222.1/24</screen>
</informalexample> will create a mask which will allow any
address in a class C subnet (in this case, 192.216.222) to be
matched. <emphasis remap=tt>mask-pattern</emphasis> is an IP
address which will be logically AND'ed with the address given.
The keyword <emphasis remap=tt>any</emphasis> may be used to
specify <quote>any IP address</quote>.</para>
<para>The port numbers to be blocked are specified as:
<informalexample>
<screen>port[,port[,port[...]]]</screen>
</informalexample> to specify either a single port or a list of
ports, or
<informalexample>
<screen>port-port</screen>
</informalexample> to specify a range of ports. You may also
combine a single range with a list, but the range must always be
specified first.</para>
<para>The <emphasis>options</emphasis> available are:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>frag</term>
<listitem>
<para>Matches if the packet is not the first fragment of
the datagram.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>in</term>
<listitem>
<para>Matches if the packet is on the way in.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>out</term>
<listitem>
<para>Matches if the packet is on the way out.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>ipoptions <emphasis>spec</emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Matches if the IP header contains the comma
separated list of options specified in
<emphasis>spec</emphasis>. The supported list of IP
options are: <emphasis remap=bf>ssrr</emphasis> (strict
source route), <emphasis remap=bf>lsrr</emphasis> (loose
source route), <emphasis remap=bf>rr</emphasis> (record
packet route), and <emphasis remap=bf>ts</emphasis>
(timestamp). The absence of a particular option may be
denoted with a leading '!'.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>established</term>
<listitem>
<para>Matches if the packet is part of an already
established TCP connection (i.e. it has the RST or ACK
bits set). You can optimize the performance of the
firewall by placing <emphasis>established</emphasis>
rules early in the chain.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>setup</term>
<listitem>
<para>Matches if the packet is an attempt to establish a
TCP connection (the SYN bit set is set but the ACK bit
is not).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>tcpflags <emphasis>flags</emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Matches if the TCP header contains the comma
separated list of <emphasis>flags</emphasis>. The
supported flags are <emphasis remap=bf>fin</emphasis>,
<emphasis remap=bf>syn</emphasis>, <emphasis
remap=bf>rst</emphasis>, <emphasis
remap=bf>psh</emphasis>, <emphasis
remap=bf>ack</emphasis>, and <emphasis
remap=bf>urg</emphasis>. The absence of a particular
flag may be indicated by a leading '!'.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>icmptypes
<emphasis>types</emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Matches if the ICMP type is present in the list
<emphasis>types</emphasis>. The list may be specified
as any combination of ranges and/or individual types
separated by commas. Commonly used ICMP types are:
<emphasis remap=bf>0</emphasis> echo reply (ping reply),
<emphasis remap=bf>5</emphasis> redirect, <emphasis
remap=bf>8</emphasis> echo request (ping request), and
<emphasis remap=bf>11</emphasis> time exceeded (used to
indicate TTL expiration as with
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>traceroute</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Listing the IPFW rules</title>
<para>The syntax for this form of the command is:
<cmdsynopsis>
<command>ipfw</command>
<arg>-a</arg>
<arg>-t</arg>
<arg>-N</arg>
<arg choice="plain">l</arg>
</cmdsynopsis>
</para>
<para>There are three valid flags when using this form of the
command:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>-a</term>
<listitem>
<para>While listing, show counter values. This option is
the only way to see accounting counters.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>-t</term>
<listitem>
<para>Display the last match times for each chain entry.
The time listing is incompatible with the input syntax
used by the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipfw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> utility.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>-N</term>
<listitem>
<para>Attempt to resolve given addresses and service
names.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Flushing the IPFW rules</title>
<para>The syntax for flushing the chain is:
<informalexample>
<screen>ipfw flush</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>This causes all entries in the firewall chain to be removed
except the fixed default policy enforced by the kernel (index
65535). Use caution when flushing rules, the default deny
policy will leave your system cut off from the network until
allow entries are added to the chain.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Clearing the IPFW packet counters</title>
<para>The syntax for clearing one or more packet counters is:
<cmdsynopsis>
<command>ipfw</command>
<arg choice="plain">zero</arg>
<arg>index</arg>
</cmdsynopsis>
</para>
<para>When used without an <emphasis>index</emphasis> argument,
all packet counters are cleared. If an
<emphasis>index</emphasis> is supplied, the clearing operation
only affects a specific chain entry.</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Example commands for ipfw</title>
<para>This command will deny all packets from the host
<filename>evil.hacker.org</filename> to the telnet port of the
host <filename>nice.people.org</filename> by being forwarded by
the router:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>ipfw add deny tcp from evil.hacker.org to
nice.people.org 23</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>The next example denies and logs any TCP traffic from the
entire <filename>hacker.org</filename> network (a class C) to the
<filename>nice.people.org</filename> machine (any port).</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>ipfw add deny log tcp from evil.hacker.org/24 to
nice.people.org</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>If you do not want people sending X sessions to your internal
network (a subnet of a class C), the following command will do the
necessary filtering:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>ipfw add deny tcp from any to my.org/28 6000
setup</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>To see the accounting records:
<informalexample>
<screen>ipfw -a list</screen>
</informalexample> or in the short form
<informalexample>
<screen>ipfw -a l</screen>
</informalexample> You can also see the last time a chain entry
was matched with
<informalexample>
<screen>ipfw -at l</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Building a packet filtering firewall</title>
<note>
<para>The following suggestions are just that: suggestions. The
requirements of each firewall are different and I cannot tell
you how to build a firewall to meet your particular
requirements.</para>
</note>
<para>When initially setting up your firewall, unless you have a
test bench setup where you can configure your firewall host in a
controlled environment, I strongly recommend you use the logging
version of the commands and enable logging in the kernel. This
will allow you to quickly identify problem areas and cure them
without too much disruption. Even after the initial setup phase is
complete, I recommend using the logging for of `deny' as it allows
tracing of possible attacks and also modification of the firewall
rules if your requirements alter.</para>
<note>
<para>If you use the logging versions of the <emphasis
remap=bf>accept</emphasis> command, it can generate
<emphasis>large</emphasis> amounts of log data as one log line
will be generated for every packet that passes through the
firewall, so large ftp/http transfers, etc, will really slow the
system down. It also increases the latencies on those packets as
it requires more work to be done by the kernel before the packet
can be passed on. syslogd with also start using up a lot more
processor time as it logs all the extra data to disk, and it
could quite easily fill the partition
<filename>/var/log</filename> is located on.</para>
</note>
<para>As currently supplied, FreeBSD does not have the ability to
load firewall rules at boot time. My suggestion is to put a call
to a shell script in the <filename>/etc/netstart</filename>
script. Put the call early enough in the netstart file so that the
firewall is configured before any of the IP interfaces are
configured. This means that there is no window during which time
your network is open.</para>
<para>The actual script used to load the rules is entirely up to
you. There is currently no support in the <command>ipfw</command> utility for loading multiple rules in
the one command. The system I use is to use the command:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; ipfw list</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>to write a list of the current rules out to a file, and then
use a text editor to prepend `<literal>ipfw
</literal>' before all the lines. This will allow the script to
be fed into /bin/sh and reload the rules into the kernel. Perhaps
not the most efficient way, but it works.</para>
<para>The next problem is what your firewall should actually
<emphasis>DO</emphasis>! This is largely dependent on what access to
your network you want to allow from the outside, and how much
access to the outside world you want to allow from the inside.
Some general rules are:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Block all incoming access to ports below 1024 for TCP.
This is where most of the security sensitive services are,
like finger, SMTP (mail) and telnet.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Block <emphasis remap=bf>all</emphasis> incoming UDP
traffic. There are very few useful services that travel over
UDP, and what useful traffic there is is normally a security
threat (e.g. Suns RPC and NFS protocols). This has its
disadvantages also, since UDP is a connectionless protocol,
denying incoming UDP traffic also blocks the replies to
outgoing UDP traffic. This can cause a problem for people
(on the inside) using external archie (prospero) servers.
If you want to allow access to archie, you'll have to allow
packets coming from ports 191 and 1525 to any internal UDP
port through the firewall. ntp is another service you may
consider allowing through, which comes from port 123.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Block traffic to port 6000 from the outside. Port 6000
is the port used for access to X11 servers, and can be a
security threat (especially if people are in the habit of
doing <command>xhost +</command> on their
workstations). X11 can actually use a range of ports
starting at 6000, the upper limit being how many X displays
you can run on the machine. The upper limit as defined by
RFC 1700 (Assigned Numbers) is 6063.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Check what ports any internal servers use (e.g. SQL
servers, etc). It is probably a good idea to block those as
well, as they normally fall outside the 1-1024 range
specified above.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>Another checklist for firewall configuration is available from
CERT at <ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.cert.org/pub/tech_tips/packet_filtering">ftp://ftp.cert.org/pub/tech_tips/packet_filtering</ulink></para>
<para>As I said above, these are only
<emphasis>guidelines</emphasis>. You will have to decide what
filter rules you want to use on your firewall yourself. I cannot
accept ANY responsibility if someone breaks into your network,
even if you follow the advice given above.
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
</chapter>
<chapter
id="printing">
<title>Printing</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.kelly;<!-- <br> -->30 September
1995</emphasis></para>
<para>In order to use printers with FreeBSD, you will need to set them
up to work with the Berkeley line printer spooling system, also known
as the LPD spooling system. It is the standard printer control system
in FreeBSD. This section introduces the LPD spooling system, often
simply called LPD.</para>
<para>If you are already familiar with LPD or another printer spooling
system, you may wish to skip to section <xref
linkend="printing-intro-setup" remap="Setting up the spooling
system">.</para>
<sect1
id="printing-intro-spooler">
<title>What the Spooler Does</title>
<para> LPD controls everything about a host's printers. It is
responsible for a number of things:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>It controls access to attached printers and printers
attached to other hosts on the network.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>It enables users to submit files to be printed; these
submissions are known as <emphasis>jobs</emphasis>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>It prevents multiple users from accessing a printer at the
same time by maintaining a <emphasis>queue</emphasis> for each
printer.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>It can print <emphasis>header pages</emphasis> (also known
as <emphasis>banner</emphasis> or <emphasis>burst</emphasis>
pages) so users can easily find jobs they have printed in a
stack of printouts.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>It takes care of communications parameters for printers
connected on serial ports.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>It can send jobs over the network to another LPD spooler
on another host.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>It can run special filters to format jobs to be printed
for various printer languages or printer capabilities.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>It can account for printer usage.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>Through a configuration file, and by providing the special
filter programs, you can enable the LPD system to do all or some
subset of the above for a great variety of printer hardware.</para>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="printing-intro-why">
<title>Why You Should Use the Spooler</title>
<para> If you are the sole user of your system, you may be wondering
why you should bother with the spooler when you do not need access
control, header pages, or printer accounting. While it is possible
to enable direct access to a printer, you should use the spooler
anyway since</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>LPD prints jobs in the background; you do not have to wait
for data to be copied to the printer.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>LPD can conveniently run a job to be printed through
filters to add date/time headers or convert a special file
format (such as a TeX DVI file) into a format the printer will
understand. You will not have to do these steps manually.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Many free and commercial programs that provide a print
feature usually expect to talk to the spooler on your system.
By setting up the spooling system, you will more easily
support other software you may later add or already
have.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="printing-intro-setup">
<title>Setting Up the Spooling System</title>
<para> To use printers with the LPD spooling system, you will need to
set up both your printer hardware and the LPD software. This
document describes two levels of setup:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>See section <xref linkend="printing-simple" remap="Simple
Printer Setup"> to learn how to connect a printer, tell LPD
how to communicate with it, and print plain text files to the
printer.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>See section <xref linkend="printing-advanced"
remap="Advanced Printer Setup"> to find out how to print a
variety of special file formats, to print header pages, to
print across a network, to control access to printers, and to
do printer accounting.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="printing-simple">
<title>Simple Printer Setup</title>
<para> This section tells how to configure printer hardware and the
LPD software to use the printer. It teaches the basics:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Section <xref linkend="printing-hardware" remap="Hardware
Setup"> gives some hints on connecting the printer to a port
on your computer.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Section <xref linkend="printing-software" remap="Software
Setup"> shows how to setup the LPD spooler configuration
file <filename>/etc/printcap</filename>.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>If you are setting up a printer that uses a network protocol to
accept data to print instead of a serial or parallel interface, see
<xref linkend="printing-advanced-network-net-if" remap="Printers
With Networked Data Stream Interaces">.</para>
<para>Although this section is called <quote>Simple Printer Setup,</quote> it is
actually fairly complex. Getting the printer to work with your
computer and the LPD spooler is the hardest part. The advanced
options like header pages and accounting are fairly easy once you
get the printer working.</para>
<sect2
id="printing-hardware">
<title>Hardware Setup</title>
<para> This section tells about the various ways you can connect a
printer to your PC. It talks about the kinds of ports and cables,
and also the kernel configuration you may need to enable FreeBSD
to speak to the printer.</para>
<para>If you have already connected your printer and have
successfully printed with it under another operating system, you
can probably skip to section <xref linkend="printing-software"
remap="Software Setup">.</para>
<sect3
id="printing-ports">
<title>Ports and Cables</title>
<para> Nearly all printers you can get for a PC today support one
or both of the following interfaces:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Serial</emphasis> interfaces use a serial
port on your computer to send data to the printer. Serial
interfaces are common in the computer industry and cables
are readily available and also easy to construct. Serial
interfaces sometimes need special cables and might require
you to configure somewhat complex communications options.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Parallel</emphasis> interfaces use a
parallel port on your computer to send data to the
printer. Parallel interfaces are common in the PC market.
Cables are readily available but more difficult to
construct by hand. There are usually no communications
options with parallel interfaces, making their
configuration exceedingly simple.
</para>
<para> Parallel interfaces are sometimes known as
<quote>Centronics</quote> interfaces, named after the connector type
on the printer.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>In general, serial interfaces are slower than parallel
interfaces. Parallel interfaces usually offer just one-way
communication (computer to printer) while serial gives you
two-way. Many newer parallel ports can also receive data from
the printer, but only few printers need to send data back to the
computer. And FreeBSD does not support two-way parallel
communication yet.</para>
<para>Usually, the only time you need two-way communication with
the printer is if the printer speaks PostScript. PostScript
printers can be very verbose. In fact, PostScript jobs are
actually programs sent to the printer; they need not produce
paper at all and may return results directly to the computer.
PostScript also uses two-way communication to tell the computer
about problems, such as errors in the PostScript program or
paper jams. Your users may be appreciative of such information.
Furthermore, the best way to do effective accounting with a
PostScript printer requires two-way communication: you ask the
printer for its page count (how many pages it has printed in its
lifetime), then send the user's job, then ask again for its page
count. Subtract the two values and you know how much paper to
charge the user.</para>
<para>So, which interface should you use?</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>If you need two-way communication, use a serial port.
FreeBSD does not yet support two-way communication over a
parallel port.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If you do not need two-way communication and can pick
parallel or serial, prefer the parallel interface. It
keeps a serial port free for other peripherals---such as a
terminal or a modem---and is faster most of the time. It
is also easier to configure.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Finally, use whatever works. </para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="printing-parallel">
<title>Parallel Ports</title>
<para> To hook up a printer using a parallel interface, connect
the Centronics cable between the printer and the computer. The
instructions that came with the printer, the computer, or both
should give you complete guidance.</para>
<para>Remember which parallel port you used on the computer. The
first parallel port is /dev/lpt0 to FreeBSD; the second is
/dev/lpt1, and so on.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="printing-serial">
<title>Serial Ports</title>
<para> To hook up a printer using a serial interface, connect the
proper serial cable between the printer and the computer. The
instructions that came with the printer, the computer, or both
should give you complete guidance.</para>
<para>If you are unsure what the <quote>proper serial cable</quote> is, you
may wish to try one of the following alternatives:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>A <emphasis>modem</emphasis> cable connects each pin
of the connector on one end of the cable straight through
to its corresponding pin of the connector on the other
end. This type of cable is also known as a DTE-to-DCE
cable.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>A <emphasis>null-modem</emphasis> cable connects some
pins straight through, swaps others (send data to receive
data, for example), and shorts some internally in each
connector hood. This type of cable is also known as a
DTE-to-DTE cable.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>A <emphasis>serial printer</emphasis> cable, required
for some unusual printers, is like the null modem cable,
but sends some signals to their counterparts instead of
being internally shorted.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>You should also set up the communications parameters for the
printer, usually through front-panel controls or DIP switches on
the printer. Choose the highest bps (bits per second, sometimes
<emphasis>baud rate</emphasis>) rate that both your computer and
the printer can support. Choose 7 or 8 data bits; none, even,
or odd parity; and 1 or 2 stop bits. Also choose a flow control
protocol: either none, or XON/XOFF (also known as
<emphasis>in-band</emphasis> or <emphasis>software</emphasis>)
flow control. Remember these settings for the software
configuration that follows.</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="printing-software">
<title>Software Setup</title>
<para> This section describes the software setup necessary to print
with the LPD spooling system in FreeBSD.</para>
<para>Here is an outline of the steps involved:
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Configure your kernel, if necessary, for the port you
are using for the printer; section <xref
linkend="printing-kernel" remap="Kernel Configuration">
tells you what you need to do.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Set the communications mode for the parallel port, if
you are using a parallel port; section <xref
linkend="printing-parallel-port-mode" remap="Setting the
Communication Mode for the Parallel Port"> gives details.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Test if the operating system can send data to the
printer. Section <xref linkend="printing-testing"
remap="Checking Printer Communications"> gives some
suggestions on how to do this.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Set up LPD for the printer by modifying the file
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename>. Section <xref
linkend="printing-printcap" remap="The /etc/printcap
File"> shows you how.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
<sect3
id="printing-kernel">
<title>Kernel Configuration</title>
<para> The operating system kernel is compiled to work with a
specific set of devices. The serial or parallel interface for
your printer is a part of that set. Therefore, it might be
necessary to add support for an additional serial or parallel
port if your kernel is not already configured for one.</para>
<para>To find out if the kernel you are currently using supports a
serial interface, type
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>dmesg | grep
sio<replaceable>N</replaceable></userinput></screen>
</informalexample> where <replaceable>N</replaceable> is the
number of the serial port, starting from zero. If you see
output similar to the following
<informalexample>
<screen> sio2 at 0x3e8-0x3ef irq 5 on isa sio2: type
16550A</screen>
</informalexample> then the kernel supports the port.</para>
<para>To find out if the kernel supports a parallel interface,
type
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>dmesg | grep
lpt<replaceable>N</replaceable></userinput></screen>
</informalexample> where <replaceable>N</replaceable> is the
number of the parallel port, starting from zero. If you see
output similar to the following
<informalexample>
<screen>lpt0 at 0x378-0x37f on isa</screen>
</informalexample> then the kernel supports the port.</para>
<para>You might have to reconfigure your kernel in order for the
operating system to recognize and use the parallel or serial
port you are using for the printer.</para>
<para>To add support for a serial port, see the section on kernel
configuration. To add support for a parallel port, see that
section <emphasis>and</emphasis> the section that
follows.</para>
<sect4
id="printing-dev-ports">
<title>Adding <filename>/dev</filename> Entries for the Ports
</title>
<para> Even though the kernel may support communication along a
serial or parallel port, you will still need a software
interface through which programs running on the system can
send and receive data. That is what entries in the
<filename>/dev</filename> directory are for.</para>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>To add a <filename>/dev</filename>
entry for a port:</emphasis>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Become root with the <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>su</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
command. Enter the root password when prompted.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Change to the <filename>/dev</filename> directory:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; cd /dev</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Type
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; <userinput> ./MAKEDEV
<replaceable>port</replaceable></userinput></screen>
</informalexample> where <replaceable>port</replaceable> is the device entry for the
port you want to make. Use <literal>lpt0</literal> for the first parallel port,
<literal>lpt1</literal> for the second, and
so on; use <literal>ttyd0</literal> for the
first serial port, <literal>ttyd1</literal>
for the second, and so on.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Type
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>ls -l <replaceable>port</replaceable></userinput></screen>
</informalexample> to make sure the device entry got
created.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="printing-parallel-port-mode">
<title>Setting the Communication Mode for the Parallel Port
</title>
<para> When you are using the parallel interface, you can choose
whether FreeBSD should use interrupt-driven or polled
communication with the printer.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>The <emphasis>interrupt-driven</emphasis> method is
the default with the GENERIC kernel. With this method,
the operating system uses an IRQ line to determine when
the printer is ready for data.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>The <emphasis>polled</emphasis> method directs the
operating system to repeatedly ask the printer if it is
ready for more data. When it responds ready, the kernel
sends more data.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>The interrupt-driven method is somewhat faster but uses up
a precious IRQ line. You should use whichever one
works.</para>
<para>You can set the communications mode in two ways: by
configuring the kernel or by using the <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lptcontrol</refentrytitle></citerefentry></para>
<para>program.</para>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>To set the communications mode by
configuring the kernel:</emphasis>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Edit your kernel configuration file. Look for or
add an <literal>lpt0</literal> entry. If you
are setting up the second parallel port, use <literal>lpt1</literal> instead. Use <literal>lpt2</literal> for the third port, and so
on.
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>If you want interrupt-driven mode, add the
<literal>irq</literal> specifier:
<informalexample>
<screen>device lpt0 at isa?
port? tty irq <replaceable>N</replaceable>
vector lptintr</screen>
</informalexample> where <replaceable>N</replaceable> is the IRQ number for your
computer's parallel port.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If you want polled mode, do not add the
<literal>irq</literal> specifier:
<informalexample>
<screen>device lpt0 at isa?
port? tty vector lptintr
</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Save the file. Then configure, build, and install
the kernel, then reboot. See <xref
linkend="kernelconfig" remap="kernel configuration">
for more details.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>To set the communications mode
with</emphasis> <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lptcontrol</refentrytitle></citerefentry>:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Type
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>lptcontrol -i -u
<replaceable>N</replaceable></userinput></screen>
</informalexample> to set interrupt-driven mode for
<literal>lpt<replaceable>N</replaceable></literal>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Type
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>lptcontrol -p -u
<replaceable>N</replaceable></userinput></screen>
</informalexample> to set polled-mode for <literal>lpt<replaceable>N</replaceable></literal>.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist> You could put these commands in your
<filename>/etc/rc.local</filename> file to set the mode each
time your system boots. See <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lptcontrol</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more information.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="printing-testing">
<title>Checking Printer Communications</title>
<para> Before proceeding to configure the spooling system, you
should make sure the operating system can successfully send
data to your printer. It is a lot easier to debug printer
communication and the spooling system separately.</para>
<para>To test the printer, we will send some text to it. For
printers that can immediately print characters sent to them,
the program <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lptest</refentrytitle></citerefentry> is perfect: it generates all 96 printable ASCII characters in 96 lines.</para>
<para>For a PostScript (or other language-based) printer, we
will need a more sophisticated test. A small PostScript
program, such as the following, will suffice:
<informalexample>
<programlisting>%!PS 100 100 moveto 300 300 lineto stroke
310 310 moveto /Helvetica findfont 12 scalefont setfont
(Is this thing working?) show showpage</programlisting>
</informalexample>
</para>
<note>
<para>When this document refers to a printer language, I am
assuming a language like PostScript, and not Hewlett
Packard's PCL. Although PCL has great functionality, you can
intermingle plain text with its escape sequences.
PostScript cannot directly print plain text, and that is the
kind of printer language for which we must make special
accommodations.</para>
</note>
<sect5
id="printing-checking-parallel">
<title>Checking a Parallel Printer</title>
<para> This section tells you how to check if FreeBSD can
communicate with a printer connected to a parallel
port.</para>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>To test a printer on a parallel
port:</emphasis>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Become root with <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>su</refentrytitle></citerefentry>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Send data to the printer.
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>If the printer can print plain text, then
use <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lptest</refentrytitle></citerefentry>. Type:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>lptest &gt;
/dev/lpt<replaceable>N</replaceable></userinput></screen>
</informalexample> where <replaceable>N</replaceable> is the number of the
parallel port, starting from zero.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If the printer understands PostScript or
other printer language, then send a small
program to the printer. Type
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>cat &gt;
/dev/lpt<replaceable>N</replaceable></userinput></screen>
</informalexample> Then, line by line, type the
program <emphasis>carefully</emphasis> as you
cannot edit a line once you have pressed RETURN
or ENTER. When you have finished entering the
program, press CONTROL+D, or whatever your end
of file key is.
</para>
<para> Alternatively, you can put the program in a
file and type
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>cat
<replaceable>file</replaceable> &gt;
/dev/lpt<replaceable>N</replaceable></userinput></screen>
</informalexample> where <replaceable>file</replaceable> is the name of the
file containing the program you want to send to
the printer.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
<para>You should see something print. Do not worry if the
text does not look right; we will fix such things
later.</para>
</sect5>
<sect5
id="printing-checking-serial">
<title>Checking a Serial Printer</title>
<para> This section tells you how to check if FreeBSD can
communicate with a printer on a serial port.</para>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>To test a printer on a serial
port:</emphasis>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Become root with <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>su</refentrytitle></citerefentry>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Edit the file <filename>/etc/remote</filename>.
Add the following entry:
<informalexample>
<screen><literal>printer:dv=/dev/<replaceable>port</replaceable>:br#<replaceable>bps-rate</replaceable>:pa=<replaceable>parity</replaceable></literal></screen>
</informalexample> where <replaceable>port</replaceable> is the device entry for the
serial port (<literal>ttyd0</literal>,
<literal>ttyd1</literal>, etc.), <replaceable>bps-rate</replaceable> is the bits-per-second
rate at which the printer communicates, and
<replaceable>parity</replaceable> is the parity required by
the printer (either <literal>even</literal>, <literal>odd</literal>, <literal>none</literal>, or <literal>zero</literal>).
</para>
<para>Here is a sample entry for a printer connected via
a serial line to the third serial port at 19200 bps
with no parity:
<informalexample>
<programlisting>printer:dv=/dev/ttyd2:br#19200:pa=none</programlisting>
</informalexample>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Connect to the printer with <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>tip</refentrytitle></citerefentry>. Type:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; tip printer</screen>
</informalexample> If this step does not work, edit
the file <filename>/etc/remote</filename> again and
try using
<filename>/dev/cuaa<replaceable>N</replaceable></filename> instead of <filename>/dev/ttyd<replaceable>N</replaceable></filename>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Send data to the printer.
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>If the printer can print plain text, then
use <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lptest</refentrytitle></citerefentry>. Type:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; lptest</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If the printer understands PostScript or
other printer language, then send a small
program to the printer. Type the program, line
by line, <emphasis>very carefully</emphasis> as
backspacing or other editing keys may be
significant to the printer. You may also need to
type a special end-of-file key for the printer
so it knows it received the whole program. For
PostScript printers, press CONTROL+D.
</para>
<para> Alternatively, you can put the program in a
file and type
<informalexample>
<screen><userinput>~&gt;<replaceable>file</replaceable></userinput></screen>
</informalexample> where <replaceable>file</replaceable> is the name of the
file containing the program. After
<citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>tip</refentrytitle></citerefentry> sends the file, press any required end-of-file key.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
<para>You should see something print. Do not worry if the
text does not look right; we will fix that later.</para>
</sect5>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="printing-printcap">
<title>Enabling the Spooler: The
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> File
</title>
<para> At this point, your printer should be hooked up, your
kernel configured to communicate with it (if necessary), and you
have been able to send some simple data to the printer. Now, we
are ready to configure LPD to control access to your
printer.</para>
<para>You configure LPD by editing the file
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename>. The LPD spooling system
reads this file each time the spooler is used, so updates to the
file take immediate effect.</para>
<para>The format of the <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>printcap</refentrytitle></citerefentry> file is straightforward. Use your favorite text editor to make changes to <filename>/etc/printcap</filename>. The format is identical to other capability files like <filename>/usr/share/misc/termcap</filename> and <filename>/etc/remote</filename>. For complete information about the format, see the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>cgetent</refentrytitle><manvolnum>3</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
<para>The simple spooler configuration consists of the following
steps:
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Pick a name (and a few convenient aliases) for the
printer, and put them in the
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> file; see <xref
linkend="printing-naming" remap="Naming the Printer">.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Turn off header pages (which are on by default) by
inserting the <emphasis remap=tt>sh</emphasis> capability;
see <xref linkend="printing-no-header-pages"
remap="Suppressing Header Pages">.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Make a spooling directory, and specify its location
with the <emphasis remap=tt>sd</emphasis> capability; see
<xref linkend="printing-spooldir"
remap="Making the Spooling Directory">.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Set the <filename>/dev</filename> entry to use for the
printer, and note it in <filename>/etc/printcap</filename>
with the <emphasis remap=tt>lp</emphasis> capability; see
<xref
linkend="printing-device" remap="Identifying the Printer
Device">. Also, if the printer is on a serial port, set
up the communication parameters with the <emphasis
remap=tt>fs</emphasis>, <emphasis
remap=tt>fc</emphasis>, <emphasis
remap=tt>xs</emphasis>, and <emphasis
remap=tt>xc</emphasis> capabilities; see <xref
linkend="printing-commparam" remap="Configuring Spooler
Communications Parameters">.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Install a plain text input filter; see <xref
linkend="printing-textfilter" remap="Installing the Text
Filter">
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Test the setup by printing something with the
<citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
command; see <xref linkend="printing-trying" remap="Trying
It Out"> and <xref linkend="printing-troubleshooting"
remap="Troubleshooting">.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
<note>
<para>Language-based printers, such as PostScript printers,
cannot directly print plain text. The simple setup outlined
above and described in the following sections assumes that if
you are installing such a printer you will print only files
that the printer can understand.</para>
</note>
<para>Users often expect that they can print plain text to any of
the printers installed on your system. Programs that interface
to LPD to do their printing usually make the same assumption.
If you are installing such a printer and want to be able to
print jobs in the printer language <emphasis>and</emphasis>
print plain text jobs, you are strongly urged to add an
additional step to the simple setup outlined above: install an
automatic plain-text--to--PostScript (or other printer language)
conversion program. Section <xref
linkend="printing-advanced-if-conversion" remap="Accommodating
Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers"> tells how to do
this.</para>
<sect4
id="printing-naming">
<title>Naming the Printer</title>
<para> The first (easy) step is to pick a name for your printer.
It really does not matter whether you choose functional or
whimsical names since you can also provide a number aliases
for the printer.</para>
<para>At least one of the printers specified in the
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> should have the alias
<literal>lp</literal>. This is the default
printer's name. If users do not have the PRINTER environment
variable nor specify a printer name on the command line of any
of the LPD commands, then <literal>lp</literal>
will be the default printer they get to use.</para>
<para>Also, it is common practice to make the last alias for a
printer be a full description of the printer, including make
and model.</para>
<para>Once you have picked a name and some common aliases, put
them in the <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> file. The name
of the printer should start in the leftmost column. Separate
each alias with a vertical bar and put a colon after the last
alias.</para>
<para>In the following example, we start with a skeletal
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> that defines two printers
(a Diablo 630 line printer and a Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript
laser printer):
<informalexample>
<programlisting># # /etc/printcap for host rose #
rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:
bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript
v51.4:</programlisting>
</informalexample> In this example, the first printer is named
<hostid>rattan</hostid> and has as aliases
<emphasis remap=tt>line</emphasis>, <emphasis
remap=tt>diablo</emphasis>, <emphasis
remap=tt>lp</emphasis>, and <emphasis remap=tt>Diablo 630
Line Printer</emphasis>. Since it has the alias <emphasis
remap=tt>lp</emphasis>, it is also the default printer. The
second is named <hostid>bamboo</hostid>, and has
as aliases <emphasis remap=tt>ps</emphasis>,
<option>PS</option>, <emphasis remap=tt>S</emphasis>,
<emphasis remap=tt>panasonic</emphasis>, and <emphasis
remap=tt>Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript
v51.4</emphasis>.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="printing-no-header-pages">
<title>Suppressing Header Pages</title>
<para> The LPD spooling system will by default print a
<emphasis>header page</emphasis> for each job. The header
page contains the user name who requested the job, the host
from which the job came, and the name of the job, in nice
large letters. Unfortunately, all this extra text gets in the
way of debugging the simple printer setup, so we will suppress
header pages.</para>
<para>To suppress header pages, add the <emphasis
remap=tt>sh</emphasis> capability to the entry for the
printer in <filename>/etc/printcap</filename>. Here is the
example <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> with <emphasis
remap=tt>sh</emphasis> added:
<informalexample>
<programlisting># # /etc/printcap for host rose - no header
pages anywhere # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line
Printer:\ :sh: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455
PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:</programlisting>
</informalexample> Note how we used the correct format: the
first line starts in the leftmost column, and subsequent lines
are indented with a single TAB. Every line in an entry except
the last ends in a backslash character.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="printing-spooldir">
<title>Making the Spooling Directory</title>
<para> The next step in the simple spooler setup is to make a
<emphasis>spooling directory</emphasis>, a directory where
print jobs reside until they are printed, and where a number
of other spooler support files live.</para>
<para>Because of the variable nature of spooling directories, it
is customary to put these directories under
<filename>/var/spool</filename>. It is not necessary to
backup the contents of spooling directories, either.
Recreating them is as simple as running <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>mkdir</refentrytitle></citerefentry>.</para>
<para>It is also customary to make the directory with a name
that is identical to the name of the printer, as shown below:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>mkdir
/var/spool/<replaceable>printer-name</replaceable></userinput></screen>
</informalexample> However, if you have a lot of printers on
your network, you might want to put the spooling directories
under a single directory that you reserve just for printing
with LPD. We will do this for our two example printers
<hostid>rattan</hostid> and <hostid>bamboo</hostid>:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/lpd mkdir /var/spool/lpd/rattan
mkdir /var/spool/lpd/bamboo</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<note>
<para>If you are concerned about the privacy of jobs that
users print, you might want to protect the spooling
directory so it is not publicly accessible. Spooling
directories should be owned and be readable, writable, and
searchable by user daemon and group daemon, and no one else.
We will do this for our example printers:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; chown daemon.daemon /var/spool/lpd/rattan chown
daemon.daemon /var/spool/lpd/bamboo chmod 770
/var/spool/lpd/rattan chmod 770
/var/spool/lpd/bamboo</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</note>
<para>Finally, you need to tell LPD about these directories
using the <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> file. You
specify the pathname of the spooling directory with the
<emphasis remap=tt>sd</emphasis> capability:
<informalexample>
<programlisting># # /etc/printcap for host rose - added
spooling directories # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630
Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:
bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript
v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:</programlisting>
</informalexample> Note that the name of the printer starts in
the first column but all other entries describing the printer
should be indented with a tab and each line escaped with a
backslash.</para>
<para>If you do not specify a spooling directory with <emphasis
remap=tt>sd</emphasis>, the spooling system will use
<filename>/var/spool/lpd</filename> as a default.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="printing-device">
<title>Identifying the Printer Device</title>
<para> In section <xref linkend="printing-dev-ports"
remap="Adding /dev Entries for the Ports">, we identified
which entry in the <filename>/dev</filename> directory FreeBSD
will use to communicate with the printer. Now, we tell LPD
that information. When the spooling system has a job to
print, it will open the specified device on behalf of the
filter program (which is responsible for passing data to the
printer).</para>
<para>List the <filename>/dev</filename> entry pathname in the
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> file using the <emphasis
remap=tt>lp</emphasis> capability.</para>
<para>In our running example, let us assume that <hostid>rattan</hostid> is on the first parallel port,
and <hostid>bamboo</hostid> is on a sixth serial
port; here are the additions to
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename>:
<informalexample>
<programlisting># # /etc/printcap for host rose -
identified what devices to use #
rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\
:sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:
bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript
v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\
:lp=/dev/ttyd5:</programlisting>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>If you do not specify the <emphasis remap=tt>lp</emphasis>
capability for a printer in your
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> file, LPD uses
<filename>/dev/lp</filename> as a default.
<filename>/dev/lp</filename> currently does not exist in
FreeBSD.</para>
<para>If the printer you are installing is connected to a
parallel port, skip to the section <xref
linkend="printing-textfilter" remap="Installing the
Text Filter">. Otherwise, be sure to follow the
instructions in the next section.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="printing-commparam">
<title>Configuring Spooler Communication Parameters</title>
<para> For printers on serial ports, LPD can set up the bps
rate, parity, and other serial communication parameters on
behalf of the filter program that sends data to the printer.
This is advantageous since
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>It lets you try different communication parameters
by simply editing the <filename>/etc/printcap</filename>
file; you do not have to recompile the filter program.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>It enables the spooling system to use the same
filter program for multiple printers which may have
different serial communication settings.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>The following <filename>/etc/printcap</filename>
capabilities control serial communication parameters of the
device listed in the <emphasis remap=tt>lp</emphasis>
capability:
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis
remap=tt>br#<replaceable>bps-rate</replaceable></emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Sets the communications speed of the device to
<emphasis remap=it>bps-rate</emphasis>, where
<emphasis remap=it>bps-rate</emphasis> can be 50, 75,
110, 134, 150, 200, 300, 600, 1200, 1800, 2400, 4800,
9600, 19200, or 38400 bits-per-second.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis
remap=tt>fc#<replaceable>clear-bits</replaceable></emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Clears the flag bits <emphasis
remap=it>clear-bits</emphasis> in the <emphasis
remap=tt>sgttyb</emphasis> structure after opening
the device.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis
remap=tt>fs#<replaceable>set-bits</replaceable></emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Sets the flag bits <emphasis
remap=it>set-bits</emphasis> in the <emphasis
remap=tt>sgttyb</emphasis> structure.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis
remap=tt>xc#<replaceable>clear-bits</replaceable></emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Clears local mode bits <emphasis
remap=it>clear-bits</emphasis> after opening the
device.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis
remap=tt>xs#<replaceable>set-bits</replaceable></emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Sets local mode bits <emphasis
remap=it>set-bits</emphasis>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist> For more information on the bits for the
<emphasis remap=tt>fc</emphasis>, <emphasis
remap=tt>fs</emphasis>, <emphasis remap=tt>xc</emphasis>,
and <emphasis remap=tt>xs</emphasis> capabilities, see the
file
<filename>/usr/include/sys/ioctl_compat.h</filename>.</para>
<para>When LPD opens the device specified by the <emphasis
remap=tt>lp</emphasis> capability, it reads the flag bits in
the <literal>sgttyb</literal> structure; it clears
any bits in the <emphasis remap=tt>fc</emphasis> capability,
then sets bits in the <emphasis remap=tt>fs</emphasis>
capability, then applies the resultant setting. It does the
same for the local mode bits as well.</para>
<para>Let us add to our example printer on the sixth serial
port. We will set the bps rate to 38400. For the flag bits,
we will set the TANDEM, ANYP, LITOUT, FLUSHO, and PASS8 flags.
For the local mode bits, we will set the LITOUT and PASS8
flags:
<informalexample>
<screen>bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455
PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\
:lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000c1:xs#0x820:</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="printing-textfilter">
<title>Installing the Text Filter</title>
<para> We are now ready to tell LPD what text filter to use to
send jobs to the printer. A <emphasis>text filter</emphasis>,
also known as an <emphasis>input filter</emphasis>, is a
program that LPD runs when it has a job to print. When LPD
runs the text filter for a printer, it sets the filter's
standard input to the job to print, and its standard output to
the printer device specified with the <emphasis
remap=tt>lp</emphasis> capability. The filter is expected
to read the job from standard input, perform any necessary
translation for the printer, and write the results to standard
output, which will get printed. For more information on the
text filter, see section <xref
linkend="printing-advanced-filters"
remap="Filters">.</para>
<para>For our simple printer setup, the text filter can be a
small shell script that just executes
<filename>/bin/cat</filename> to send the job to the printer.
FreeBSD comes with another filter called <emphasis
remap=tt>lpf</emphasis> that handles backspacing and
underlining for printers that might not deal with such
character streams well. And, of course, you can use any other
filter program you want. The filter <command>lpf</command> is described in detail in section
<xref linkend="printing-advanced-lpf" remap="lpf: a
Text Filter">.</para>
<para>First, let us make the shell script
<filename>/usr/local/libexec/if-simple</filename> be a simple
text filter. Put the following text into that file with your
favorite text editor:
<informalexample>
<programlisting>#!/bin/sh # # if-simple - Simple text input
filter for lpd # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/if-simple
# # Simply copies stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter
arguments. /bin/cat &amp;&amp; exit 0 exit
2</programlisting>
</informalexample> Make the file executable:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; chmod 555 /usr/local/libexec/if-simple</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>And then tell LPD to use it by specifying it with the
<emphasis remap=tt>if</emphasis> capability in
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename>. We will add it to the two
printers we have so far in the example
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename>:
<informalexample>
<programlisting># # /etc/printcap for host rose - added
text filter # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line
Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\
:if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple:
bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript
v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\
:lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:\
:if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple:</programlisting>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="printing-trying">
<title>Trying It Out</title>
<para> You have reached the end of the simple LPD setup.
Unfortunately, congratulations are not quite yet in order,
since we still have to test the setup and correct any
problems. To test the setup, try printing something. To
print with the LPD system, you use the command <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle></citerefentry>,
which submits a job for printing.</para>
<para>You can combine <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
with the <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lptest</refentrytitle></citerefentry> program, introduced in section <xref linkend="printing-testing"
remap="Checking Printer Communications"> to generate some
test text.</para>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>To test the simple LPD
setup:</emphasis></para>
<para> Type:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>lptest 20 5 | lpr
-P<replaceable>printer-name</replaceable></userinput></screen>
</informalexample> where <emphasis
remap=it>printer-name</emphasis> is a the name of a printer
(or an alias) specified in <filename>/etc/printcap</filename>.
To test the default printer, type <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
without any <option>-P</option> argument. Again, if you are
testing a printer that expects PostScript, send a PostScript
program in that language instead of using <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lptest</refentrytitle></citerefentry>. You can do so by putting the program in a file and typing <emphasis remap=tt>lpr <replaceable>file</replaceable></emphasis>.</para>
<para>For a PostScript printer, you should get the results of
the program. If you are using <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lptest</refentrytitle></citerefentry>, then your results should look like the following:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>!"#$%&amp;'()*+,-./01234 "#$%&amp;'()*+,-./012345
#$%&amp;'()*+,-./0123456 $%&amp;'()*+,-./01234567
%&amp;'()*+,-./012345678</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>To further test the printer, try downloading larger
programs (for language-based printers) or running</para>
<para><citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lptest</refentrytitle></citerefentry> with different arguments. For example, <command>lptest 80 60</command> will produce 60 lines of 80 characters each.</para>
<para>If the printer did not work, see the next section, <xref
linkend="printing-troubleshooting"
remap="Troubleshooting">.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="printing-troubleshooting">
<title>Troubleshooting</title>
<para> After performing the simple test with <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lptest</refentrytitle></citerefentry>, you might have gotten one of the following results instead of the correct printout:
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>It worked, after awhile; or, it did not
eject a full sheet.</term>
<listitem>
<para>The printer printed the above, but it sat for
awhile and did nothing. In fact, you might have
needed to press a PRINT REMAINING or FORM FEED button
on the printer to get any results to appear.</para>
<para>If this is the case, the printer was probably
waiting to see if there was any more data for your job
before it printed anything. To fix this problem, you
can have the text filter send a FORM FEED character
(or whatever is necessary) to the printer. This is
usually sufficient to have the printer immediately
print any text remaining in its internal buffer. It
is also useful to make sure each print job ends on a
full sheet, so the next job does not start somewhere
on the middle of the last page of the previous
job.</para>
<para>The following replacement for the shell script
<filename>/usr/local/libexec/if-simple</filename>
prints a form feed after it sends the job to the
printer:
<informalexample>
<programlisting>#!/bin/sh # # if-simple - Simple
text input filter for lpd # Installed in
/usr/local/libexec/if-simple # # Simply copies
stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter arguments. #
Writes a form feed character (\f) after printing
job. /bin/cat &amp;&amp; printf "\f" &amp;&amp;
exit 0 exit 2</programlisting>
</informalexample>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>It produced the <quote>staircase
effect.</quote></term>
<listitem>
<para>You got the following on paper:
<informalexample>
<screen>!"#$%&amp;'()*+,-./01234
"#$%&amp;'()*+,-./012345
#$%&amp;'()*+,-./0123456</screen>
</informalexample> You have become another victim of
the <emphasis>staircase effect</emphasis>, caused by
conflicting interpretations of what characters should
indicate a new-line. UNIX-style operating systems use
a single character: ASCII code 10, the line feed (LF).
MS-DOS, OS/2, and others uses a pair of characters,
ASCII code 10 <emphasis>and</emphasis> ASCII code 13
(the carriage return or CR). Many printers use the
MS-DOS convention for representing new-lines.</para>
<para>When you print with FreeBSD, your text used just
the line feed character. The printer, upon seeing a
line feed character, advanced the paper one line, but
maintained the same horizontal position on the page
for the next character to print. That is what the
carriage return is for: to move the location of the
next character to print to the left edge of the
paper.</para>
<para>Here is what FreeBSD wants your printer to do:
<informalexample>
<screen>Printer received CR Printer prints
CR Printer received LF Printer prints
CR + LF</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Here are some ways to achieve this:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Use the printer's configuration switches or
control panel to alter its interpretation of
these characters. Check your printer's manual
to find out how to do this.
</para>
<note>
<para>If you boot your system into other
operating systems besides FreeBSD, you may
have to <emphasis>reconfigure</emphasis> the
printer to use a an interpretation for CR and
LF characters that those other operating
systems use. You might prefer one of the
other solutions, below.</para>
</note>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Have FreeBSD's serial line driver
automatically convert LF to CR+LF. Of course,
this works with printers on serial ports
<emphasis>only</emphasis>. To enable this
feature, set the CRMOD bit in <emphasis
remap=tt>fs</emphasis> capability in the
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> file for the
printer.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Send an <emphasis>escape code</emphasis> to
the printer to have it temporarily treat LF
characters differently. Consult your printer's
manual for escape codes that your printer might
support. When you find the proper escape code,
modify the text filter to send the code first,
then send the print job.
</para>
<para> Here is an example text filter for printers
that understand the Hewlett-Packard PCL escape
codes. This filter makes the printer treat LF
characters as a LF and CR; then it sends the
job; then it sends a form feed to eject the last
page of the job. It should work with nearly all
Hewlett Packard printers.</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<programlisting>#!/bin/sh # # hpif - Simple
text input filter for lpd for HP-PCL based
printers # Installed in
/usr/local/libexec/hpif # # Simply copies
stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter
arguments. # Tells printer to treat LF as
CR+LF. Writes a form feed character # after
printing job. printf "\033&amp;k2G"
&amp;&amp; cat &amp;&amp; printf "\f"
&amp;&amp; exit 0 exit 2</programlisting>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Here is an example
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> from a host
called orchid. It has a single printer attached
to its first parallel port, a Hewlett Packard
LaserJet 3Si named <hostid>teak</hostid>. It is using the
above script as its text filter:
<informalexample>
<programlisting># # /etc/printcap for host
orchid # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard
LaserJet 3Si:\
:lp=/dev/lpt0:sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif:</programlisting>
</informalexample>
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>It overprinted each line.</term>
<listitem>
<para>The printer never advanced a line. All of the
lines of text were printed on top of each other on one
line.</para>
<para>This problem is the <quote>opposite</quote> of the staircase
effect, described above, and is much rarer. Somewhere,
the LF characters that FreeBSD uses to end a line are
being treated as CR characters to return the print
location to the left edge of the paper, but not also
down a line.</para>
<para>Use the printer's configuration switches or
control panel to enforce the following interpretation
of LF and CR characters:
<informalexample>
<screen>Printer received CR Printer prints
CR Printer received LF Printer prints
CR + LF</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>The printer lost characters.</term>
<listitem>
<para>While printing, the printer did not print a few
characters in each line. The problem might have
gotten worse as the printer ran, losing more and more
characters.</para>
<para>The problem is that the printer cannot keep up
with the speed at which the computer sends data over a
serial line. (This problem should not occur with
printers on parallel ports.) There are two ways to
overcome the problem:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>If the printer supports XON/XOFF flow
control, have FreeBSD use it by specifying the
TANDEM bit in the <emphasis
remap=tt>fs</emphasis> capability.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If the printer supports carrier flow
control, specify the MDMBUF bit in the <emphasis
remap=tt>fs</emphasis> capability. Make sure
the cable connecting the printer to the computer
is correctly wired for carrier flow control.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If the printer does not support any flow
control, use some combination of the NLDELAY,
TBDELAY, CRDELAY, VTDELAY, and BSDELAY bits in
the <emphasis remap=tt>fs</emphasis> capability
to add appropriate delays to the stream of data
sent to the printer.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>It printed garbage.</term>
<listitem>
<para>The printer printed what appeared to be random
garbage, but not the desired text.</para>
<para>This is usually another symptom of incorrect
communications parameters with a serial printer.
Double-check the bps rate in the <emphasis
remap=tt>br</emphasis> capability, and the parity
bits in the <emphasis remap=tt>fs</emphasis> and
<emphasis remap=tt>fc</emphasis> capabilities; make
sure the printer is using the same settings as
specified in the <filename>/etc/printcap</filename>
file.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Nothing happened.</term>
<listitem>
<para>If nothing happened, the problem is probably
within FreeBSD and not the hardware. Add the log file
(<emphasis remap=tt>lf</emphasis>) capability to the
entry for the printer you are debugging in the
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> file. For example,
here is the entry for <hostid>rattan</hostid>, with the <emphasis
remap=tt>lf</emphasis> capability:
<informalexample>
<screen>rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line
Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\
:lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple:\
:lf=/var/log/rattan.log</screen>
</informalexample> Then, try printing again. Check
the log file (in our example,
<filename>/var/log/rattan.log</filename>) to see any
error messages that might appear. Based on the
messages you see, try to correct the problem.</para>
<para>If you do not specify a <emphasis
remap=tt>lf</emphasis> capability, LPD uses
<filename>/dev/console</filename> as a default.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="printing-using">
<title>Using Printers</title>
<para> This section tells you how to use printers you have setup with
FreeBSD. Here is an overview of the user-level commands:
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term><citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle></citerefentry></term>
<listitem>
<para>Print jobs</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpq</refentrytitle></citerefentry></term>
<listitem>
<para>Check printer queues</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lprm</refentrytitle></citerefentry></term>
<listitem>
<para>Remove jobs from a printer's queue</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>There is also an administrative command, <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpc</refentrytitle></citerefentry>,
described in the section <xref linkend="printing-lpc"
remap="Administrating the
LPD Spooler">, used to control printers and their queues.</para>
<para>All three of the commands <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle></citerefentry>, <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lprm</refentrytitle></citerefentry>, and
<citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpq</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
accept an option <option>-P</option> <emphasis
remap=it>printer-name</emphasis> to specify on which
printer/queue to operate, as listed in the
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> file. This enables you to
submit, remove, and check on jobs for various printers. If you do
not use the <option>-P</option> option, then these commands use the
printer specified in the PRINTER environment variable. Finally, if
you do not have a PRINTER environment variable, these commands
default to the printer named <emphasis
remap=tt>lp</emphasis>.</para>
<para>Hereafter, the terminology <emphasis>default printer</emphasis>
means the printer named in the PRINTER environment variable, or the
printer named <emphasis remap=tt>lp</emphasis> when there is no
PRINTER environment variable.</para>
<sect2
id="printing-lpr">
<title>Printing Jobs</title>
<para>To print files, type
<informalexample>
<screen><userinput>lpr
<replaceable>filename...</replaceable></userinput></screen>
</informalexample> This prints each of the listed files to the
default printer. If you list no files, <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle></citerefentry> reads
data to print from standard input. For example, this command
prints some important system files:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; lpr /etc/host.conf /etc/hosts.equiv</screen>
</informalexample> To select a specific printer, type
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>lpr -P <replaceable>printer-name</replaceable>
<replaceable>filename...</replaceable></userinput></screen>
</informalexample> This example prints a long listing of the
current directory to the printer named <hostid>rattan</hostid>:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; ls -l | lpr -P rattan</screen>
</informalexample> Because no files were listed for the
<citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
command, <command>lpr</command> read the data to print
from standard input, which was the output of the <command>ls
-l</command> command.</para>
<para>The <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle></citerefentry> command
can also accept a wide variety of options to control formatting,
apply file conversions, generate multiple copies, and so forth.
For more information, see the section <xref
linkend="printing-lpr-options"
remap="Printing Options">.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="printing-lpq">
<title>Checking Jobs</title>
<para> When you print with <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle></citerefentry>, the
data you wish to print is put together in a package called a
<emphasis>print job</emphasis>, which is sent to the LPD spooling
system. Each printer has a queue of jobs, and your job waits in
that queue along with other jobs from yourself and from other
users. The printer prints those jobs in a first-come, first-served
order.</para>
<para>To display the queue for the default printer, type
<citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpq</refentrytitle></citerefentry>. For a
specific printer, use the <option>-P</option> option. For
example, the command
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; lpq -P bamboo</screen>
</informalexample> shows the queue for the printer named <hostid>bamboo</hostid>. Here is an example of the output of
the <command>lpq</command> command:
<informalexample>
<screen>bamboo is ready and printing Rank Owner Job Files
Total Size active kelly 9 /etc/host.conf,
/etc/hosts.equiv 88 bytes 2nd kelly 10 (standard
input) 1635 bytes 3rd mary 11 ...
78519 bytes</screen>
</informalexample> This shows three jobs in the queue for
<hostid>bamboo</hostid>. The first job, submitted by
user kelly, got assigned <emphasis>job number</emphasis> 9. Every
job for a printer gets a unique job number. Most of the time you
can ignore the job number, but you will need it if you want to
cancel the job; see section
<xref linkend="printing-lprm" remap="Removing Jobs"> for
details.</para>
<para>Job number nine consists of two files; multiple files given on
the <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle></citerefentry> command
line are treated as part of a single job. It is the currently
active job (note the word <literal>active</literal>
under the <quote>Rank</quote> column), which means the printer should be
currently printing that job. The second job consists of data
passed as the standard input to the</para>
<para><citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
command. The third job came from user mary; it is a much larger
job. The pathname of the files she's trying to print is too long
to fit, so the <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpq</refentrytitle></citerefentry> command
just shows three dots.</para>
<para>The very first line of the output from <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpq</refentrytitle></citerefentry> is also
useful: it tells what the printer is currently doing (or at least
what LPD thinks the printer is doing).</para>
<para>The <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpq</refentrytitle></citerefentry> command
also support a <option>-l</option> option to generate a detailed
long listing. Here is an example of <command>lpq -l</command>:
<informalexample>
<screen>waiting for bamboo to become ready (offline ?) kelly:
1st [job 009rose] /etc/host.conf
73 bytes /etc/hosts.equiv 15 bytes
kelly: 2nd [job 010rose]
(standard input) 1635 bytes mary: 3rd
[job 011rose]
/home/orchid/mary/research/venus/alpha-regio/mapping 78519
bytes</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="printing-lprm">
<title>Removing Jobs</title>
<para> If you change your mind about printing a job, you can remove
the job from the queue with the <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lprm</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
command. Often, you can even use <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lprm</refentrytitle></citerefentry> to
remove an active job, but some or all of the job might still get
printed.</para>
<para>To remove a job from the default printer, first use
<citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpq</refentrytitle></citerefentry> to find
the job number. Then type
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>lprm
<replaceable>job-number</replaceable></userinput></screen>
</informalexample> To remove the job from a specific printer, add
the <option>-P</option> option. The following command removes job
number 10 from the queue for the printer <hostid>bamboo</hostid>:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; lprm -P bamboo 10</screen>
</informalexample> The <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lprm</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
command has a few shortcuts:
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>lprm -</term>
<listitem>
<para>Removes all jobs (for the default printer) belonging
to you.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>lprm <emphasis
remap=it>user</emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Removes all jobs (for the default printer) belonging
to <emphasis remap=it>user</emphasis>. The superuser can
remove other users' jobs; you can remove only your own
jobs.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>lprm</term>
<listitem>
<para>With no job number, user name, or
<option>-</option> appearing on the command line,
<citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lprm</refentrytitle></citerefentry> removes the currently active job on the default printer, if it belongs to you. The superuser can remove any active job.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>Just use the <option>-P</option> option with the above
shortcuts to operate on a specific printer instead of the default.
For example, the following command removes all jobs for the
current user in the queue for the printer named <hostid>rattan</hostid>:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; lprm -P rattan -</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<note>
<para>If you are working in a networked
environment,</para>
<para><citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lprm</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
will let you remove jobs only from the host from which the jobs
were submitted, even if the same printer is available from other
hosts. The following command sequence demonstrates this:
<informalexample>
<programlisting>&prompt.user; lpr -P rattan myfile &prompt.user; rlogin orchid
&prompt.user; lpq -P rattan Rank Owner Job Files Total
Size active seeyan 12 ... 49123 bytes 2nd kelly
13 myfile 12 bytes &prompt.user; lprm -P rattan 13 rose:
Permission denied &prompt.user; logout &prompt.user; lprm -P rattan 13
dfA013rose dequeued cfA013rose dequeued &prompt.user;
</programlisting>
</informalexample>
</para>
</note>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="printing-lpr-options">
<title>Beyond Plain Text: Printing Options</title>
<para> The <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle></citerefentry> command
supports a number of options that control formatting text,
converting graphic and other file formats, producing multiple
copies, handling of the job, and more. This section describes the
options.</para>
<sect3
id="printing-lpr-options-format">
<title>Formatting and Conversion Options</title>
<para> The following <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
options control formatting of the files in the job. Use these
options if the job does not contain plain text or if you want
plain text formatted through the <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>pr</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
utility.</para>
<para>For example, the following command prints a DVI file (from
the TeX typesetting system) named
<filename>fish-report.dvi</filename> to the printer named
<hostid>bamboo</hostid>:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; lpr -P bamboo -d fish-report.dvi</screen>
</informalexample> These options apply to every file in the job,
so you cannot mix (say) DVI and ditroff files together in a job.
Instead, submit the files as separate jobs, using a different
conversion option for each job.</para>
<note>
<para>All of these options except <option>-p</option> and
<option>-T</option> require conversion filters installed for
the destination printer. For example, the <option>-d</option>
option requires the DVI conversion filter. Section <xref
linkend="printing-advanced-convfilters" remap="Conversion
Filters"> gives details.</para>
</note>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term><option>-c</option></term>
<listitem>
<para>Print cifplot files.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><option>-d</option></term>
<listitem>
<para>Print DVI files.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><option>-f</option></term>
<listitem>
<para>Print FORTRAN text files.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><option>-g</option></term>
<listitem>
<para>Print plot data.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><option>-i
<replaceable>number</replaceable></option></term>
<listitem>
<para>Indent the output by <emphasis
remap=it>number</emphasis> columns; if you omit
<emphasis remap=it>number</emphasis>, indent by 8
columns. This option works only with certain conversion
filters.</para>
<note>
<para>Do not put any space between the
<option>-i</option> and the number.</para>
</note>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><option>-l</option></term>
<listitem>
<para>Print literal text data, including control
characters.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><option>-n</option></term>
<listitem>
<para>Print ditroff (device independent troff)
data.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>-p</term>
<listitem>
<para>Format plain text with <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>pr</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
before printing. See <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more information.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><option>-T
<replaceable>title</replaceable></option></term>
<listitem>
<para>Use <emphasis remap=it>title</emphasis> on the
<citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>pr</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
header instead of the file name. This option has effect
only when used with the <option>-p</option>
option.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><option>-t</option></term>
<listitem>
<para>Print troff data.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><option>-v</option></term>
<listitem>
<para>Print raster data.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>Here is an example: this command prints a nicely formatted
version of the <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>ls</refentrytitle></citerefentry> manual
page on the default printer:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; zcat /usr/share/man/man1/ls.1.gz | troff -t -man | lpr
-t</screen>
</informalexample> The <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>zcat</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
command uncompresses the source of the</para>
<para><citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>ls</refentrytitle></citerefentry> manual
page and passes it to the <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>troff</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
command, which formats that source and makes GNU troff output
and passes it to <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle></citerefentry>,
which submits the job to the LPD spooler. Because we used the
<option>-t</option> option to</para>
<para><citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle></citerefentry>, the
spooler will convert the GNU troff output into a format the
default printer can understand when it prints the job.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="printing-lpr-options-job-handling">
<title>Job Handling Options</title>
<para> The following options to <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle></citerefentry> tell
LPD to handle the job specially:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>-# <emphasis
remap=it>copies</emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Produce a number of <emphasis
remap=it>copies</emphasis> of each file in the job
instead of just one copy. An administrator may disable
this option to reduce printer wear-and-tear and
encourage photocopier usage. See section <xref
linkend="printing-advanced-restricting-copies"
remap="Restricting Multiple Copies">.</para>
<para> This example prints three copies of
<filename>parser.c</filename> followed by three copies
of <filename>parser.h</filename> to the default printer:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; lpr -#3 parser.c parser.h</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>-m</term>
<listitem>
<para>Send mail after completing the print job. With this
option, the LPD system will send mail to your account
when it finishes handling your job. In its message, it
will tell you if the job completed successfully or if
there was an error, and (often) what the error
was.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>-s</term>
<listitem>
<para>Do not copy the files to the spooling directory, but
make symbolic links to them instead.</para>
<para>If you are printing a large job, you probably want
to use this option. It saves space in the spooling
directory (your job might overflow the free space on the
filesystem where the spooling directory resides). It
saves time as well since LPD will not have to copy each
and every byte of your job to the spooling
directory.</para>
<para>There is a drawback, though: since LPD will refer to
the original files directly, you cannot modify or remove
them until they have been printed.</para>
<note>
<para>If you are printing to a remote printer, LPD will
eventually have to copy files from the local host to
the remote host, so the <option>-s</option> option
will save space only on the local spooling directory,
not the remote. It is still useful, though.</para>
</note>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>-r</term>
<listitem>
<para>Remove the files in the job after copying them to
the spooling directory, or after printing them with the
<option>-s</option> option. Be careful with this
option!</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="printing-lpr-options-misc">
<title>Header Page Options</title>
<para> These options to <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
adjust the text that normally appears on a job's header page.
If header pages are suppressed for the destination printer,
these options have no effect. See section <xref
linkend="printing-advanced-header-pages" remap="Header Pages">
for information about setting up header pages.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>-C <emphasis
remap=it>text</emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Replace the hostname on the header page with
<emphasis remap=it>text</emphasis>. The hostname is
normally the name of the host from which the job was
submitted.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>-J <emphasis
remap=it>text</emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Replace the job name on the header page with
<emphasis remap=it>text</emphasis>. The job name is
normally the name of the first file of the job, or
<filename>stdin</filename> if you are printing standard input.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>-h</term>
<listitem>
<para>Do not print any header page.</para>
<note>
<para>At some sites, this option may have no effect due
to the way header pages are generated. See <xref
linkend="printing-advanced-header-pages" remap="Header
Pages"> for details.</para>
</note>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="printing-lpc">
<title>Administrating Printers</title>
<para> As an administrator for your printers, you have had to
install, set up, and test them. Using the <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpc</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
command, you can interact with your printers in yet more ways.
With</para>
<para><citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpc</refentrytitle></citerefentry>, you
can</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Start and stop the printers
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Enable and disable their queues
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Rearrange the order of the jobs in each queue.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>First, a note about terminology: if a printer is
<emphasis>stopped</emphasis>, it will not print anything in its
queue. Users can still submit jobs, which will wait in the queue
until the printer is <emphasis>started</emphasis> or the queue is
cleared.</para>
<para>If a queue is <emphasis>disabled</emphasis>, no user (except
root) can submit jobs for the printer. An
<emphasis>enabled</emphasis> queue allows jobs to be submitted. A
printer can be <emphasis>started</emphasis> for a disabled queue,
in which case it will continue to print jobs in the queue until
the queue is empty.</para>
<para>In general, you have to have root privileges to use the</para>
<para><citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpc</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
command. Ordinary users can use the <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpc</refentrytitle></citerefentry> command
to get printer status and to restart a hung printer only.</para>
<para>Here is a summary of the <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpc</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
commands. Most of the commands takes a <emphasis
remap=it>printer-name</emphasis> argument to tell on which
printer to operate. You can use <literal>all</literal>
for the <emphasis remap=it>printer-name</emphasis> to mean all
printers listed in <filename>/etc/printcap</filename>.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis remap=tt>abort
<replaceable>printer-name</replaceable></emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Cancel the current job and stop the printer. Users
can still submit jobs if the queue's enabled.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis remap=tt>clean
<replaceable>printer-name</replaceable></emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Remove old files from the printer's spooling
directory. Occasionally, the files that make up a job are
not properly removed by LPD, particularly if there have
been errors during printing or a lot of administrative
activity. This command finds files that do not belong in
the spooling directory and removes them.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis remap=tt>disable
<replaceable>printer-name</replaceable></emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Disable queuing of new jobs. If the printer's
started, it will continue to print any jobs remaining in
the queue. The superuser (root) can always submit jobs,
even to a disabled queue.</para>
<para>This command is useful while you are testing a new
printer or filter installation: disable the queue and
submit jobs as root. Other users will not be able to
submit jobs until you complete your testing and re-enable
the queue with the <emphasis remap=tt>enable</emphasis>
command.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis remap=tt>down
<replaceable>printer-name</replaceable>
<replaceable>message...</replaceable></emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Take a printer down. Equivalent to <command>disable</command> followed by <command>stop</command>. The <emphasis
remap=it>message</emphasis> appears as the printer's
status whenever a user checks the printer's queue with
<citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpq</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
or status with <command>lpc
status</command>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis remap=tt>enable
<replaceable>printer-name</replaceable></emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Enable the queue for a printer. Users can submit jobs
but the printer will not print anything until it is
started.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis remap=tt>help
<replaceable>command-name</replaceable></emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Print help on the command <emphasis
remap=it>command-name</emphasis>. With no <emphasis
remap=it>command-name</emphasis>, print a summary of the
commands available.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis remap=tt>restart
<replaceable>printer-name</replaceable></emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Start the printer. Ordinary users can use this
command if some extraordinary circumstance hangs LPD, but
they cannot start a printer stopped with either the
<command>stop</command> or <emphasis
remap=tt>down</emphasis> commands. The <command>restart</command> command is equivalent to
<command>abort</command> followed by <command>start</command>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis remap=tt>start
<replaceable>printer-name</replaceable></emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Start the printer. The printer will print jobs in its
queue.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis remap=tt>stop
<replaceable>printer-name</replaceable></emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Stop the printer. The printer will finish the current
job and will not print anything else in its queue. Even
though the printer is stopped, users can still submit jobs
to an enabled queue.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis remap=tt>topq
<replaceable>printer-name</replaceable>
<replaceable>job-or-username...</replaceable></emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Rearrange the queue for <emphasis
remap=it>printer-name</emphasis> by placing the jobs
with the listed <emphasis remap=it>job</emphasis> numbers
or the jobs belonging to <emphasis
remap=it>username</emphasis> at the top of the queue.
For this command, you cannot use <literal>all</literal> as the <emphasis
remap=it>printer-name</emphasis>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis remap=tt>up
<replaceable>printer-name</replaceable></emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Bring a printer up; the opposite of the <command>down</command> command. Equivalent to
<command>start</command> followed by <command>enable</command>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para><citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpc</refentrytitle></citerefentry> accepts
the above commands on the command line. If you do not enter any
commands, <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpc</refentrytitle></citerefentry> enters
an interactive mode, where you can enter commands until you type
<command>exit</command>, <command>quit</command>, or end-of-file.</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="printing-advanced">
<title>Advanced Printer Setup</title>
<para> This section describes filters for printing specially formatted
files, header pages, printing across networks, and restricting and
accounting for printer usage.</para>
<sect2
id="printing-advanced-filter-intro">
<title>Filters</title>
<para> Although LPD handles network protocols, queuing, access
control, and other aspects of printing, most of the
<emphasis>real</emphasis> work happens in the
<emphasis>filters</emphasis>. Filters are programs that
communicate with the printer and handle its device dependencies
and special requirements. In the simple printer setup, we
installed a plain text filter---an extremely simple one that
should work with most printers (section <xref
linkend="printing-textfilter" remap="Installing the
Text Filter">).</para>
<para>However, in order to take advantage of format conversion,
printer accounting, specific printer quirks, and so on, you should
understand how filters work. It will ultimately be the filter's
responsibility to handle these aspects. And the bad news is that
most of the time <emphasis>you</emphasis> have to provide filters
yourself. The good news is that many are generally available;
when they are not, they are usually easy to write.</para>
<para>Also, FreeBSD comes with one,
<filename>/usr/libexec/lpr/lpf</filename>, that works with many
printers that can print plain text. (It handles backspacing and
tabs in the file, and does accounting, but that is about all it
does.) There are also several filters and filter components in
the FreeBSD ports collection.</para>
<para>Here is what you will find in this section:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Section <xref linkend="printing-advanced-filters"
remap="How Filters Work">, tries to give an overview of a
filter's role in the printing process. You should read this
section to get an understanding of what is happening <quote>under
the hood</quote> when LPD uses filters. This knowledge could help
you anticipate and debug problems you might encounter as you
install more and more filters on each of your printers.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>LPD expects every printer to be able to print plain text
by default. This presents a problem for PostScript (or
other language-based printers) which cannot directly print
plain text. Section <xref
linkend="printing-advanced-if-conversion"
remap="Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript
Printers"> tells you what you should do to overcome this
problem. I recommend reading this section if you have a
PostScript printer.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>PostScript is a popular output format for many programs.
Even some people (myself included) write PostScript code
directly. But PostScript printers are expensive. Section
<xref linkend="printing-advanced-ps"
remap="Simulating PostScript on Non-PostScript Printers">
tells how you can further modify a printer's text filter to
accept and print PostScript data on a
<emphasis>non-PostScript</emphasis> printer. I recommend
reading this section if you do not have a PostScript
printer.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Section <xref linkend="printing-advanced-convfilters"
remap="Conversion Filters"> tells about a way you can
automate the conversion of specific file formats, such as
graphic or typesetting data, into formats your printer can
understand. After reading this section, you should be able
to set up your printers such that users can type
<command>lpr -t</command> to print troff data, or
<command>lpr -d</command> to print TeX DVI data, or
<command>lpr -v</command> to print raster image data, and so
forth. I recommend reading this section.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Section <xref linkend="printing-advanced-of"
remap="Output Filters"> tells all about a not often used
feature of LPD: output filters. Unless you are printing
header pages (see <xref
linkend="printing-advanced-header-pages"
remap="Header Pages">), you can probably skip that section
altogether.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Section <xref linkend="printing-advanced-lpf"
remap="lpf: a Text Filter"> describes <command>lpf</command>, a fairly complete if simple text
filter for line printers (and laser printers that act like
line printers) that comes with FreeBSD. If you need a quick
way to get printer accounting working for plain text, or if
you have a printer which emits smoke when it sees backspace
characters, you should definitely consider <command>lpf</command>.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<sect3
id="printing-advanced-filters">
<title>How Filters Work</title>
<para> As mentioned before, a filter is an executable program
started by LPD to handle the device-dependent part of
communicating with the printer.</para>
<para>When LPD wants to print a file in a job, it starts a filter
program. It sets the filter's standard input to the file to
print, its standard output to the printer, and its standard
error to the error logging file (specified in the <emphasis
remap=tt>lf</emphasis> capability in
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename>, or
<filename>/dev/console</filename> by default).</para>
<para>Which filter LPD starts and the filter's arguments depend on
what is listed in the <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> file
and what arguments the user specified for the job on the</para>
<para><citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
command line. For example, if the user typed <command>lpr
-t</command>, LPD would start the troff filter, listed in the
<emphasis remap=tt>tf</emphasis> capability for the destination
printer. If the user wanted to print plain text, it would start
the <emphasis remap=tt>if</emphasis> filter (this is mostly
true:
see <xref linkend="printing-advanced-of" remap="Output Filters">
for details).</para>
<para>There are three kinds of filters you can specify in
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename>:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>The <emphasis>text filter</emphasis>, confusingly
called the <emphasis>input filter</emphasis> in LPD
documentation, handles regular text printing. Think of it
as the default filter. LPD expects every printer to be
able to print plain text by default, and it is the text
filter's job to make sure backspaces, tabs, or other
special characters do not confuse the printer. If you are
in an environment where you have to account for printer
usage, the text filter must also account for pages
printed, usually by counting the number of lines printed
and comparing that to the number of lines per page the
printer supports. The text filter is started with the
following argument list:
<informalexample>
<screen><command>[-c] -w<replaceable>width</replaceable>
-l<replaceable>length</replaceable>
-i<replaceable>indent</replaceable> -n
<replaceable>login</replaceable> -h
<replaceable>host</replaceable>
<replaceable>acct-file</replaceable></command></screen>
</informalexample> where
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term><option>-c</option></term>
<listitem>
<para>appears if the job's submitted with
<command>lpr -l</command></para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis
remap=tt><replaceable>width</replaceable></emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>is the value from the <emphasis
remap=tt>pw</emphasis> (page width) capability
specified in <filename>/etc/printcap</filename>,
default 132</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis
remap=tt><replaceable>length</replaceable></emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>is the value from the <emphasis
remap=tt>pl</emphasis> (page length) capability,
default 66</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis
remap=tt><replaceable>indent</replaceable></emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>is the amount of the indentation from
<command>lpr -i</command>, default 0</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis
remap=tt><replaceable>login</replaceable></emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>is the account name of the user printing the
file</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis
remap=tt><replaceable>host</replaceable></emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>is the host name from which the job was
submitted</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis
remap=tt><replaceable>acct-file</replaceable></emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>is the name of the accounting file from the
<emphasis remap=tt>af</emphasis>
capability.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>A <emphasis>conversion filter</emphasis> converts a
specific file format into one the printer can render onto
paper. For example, ditroff typesetting data cannot be
directly printed, but you can install a conversion filter
for ditroff files to convert the ditroff data into a form
the printer can digest and print. Section
<xref linkend="printing-advanced-convfilters"
remap="Conversion Filters"> tells all about them.
Conversion filters also need to do accounting, if you need
printer accounting. Conversion filters are started with
the following arguments:
<informalexample>
<screen><command>-x<replaceable>pixel-width</replaceable> -y<replaceable>pixel-height</replaceable> -n <replaceable>login</replaceable> -h <replaceable>host</replaceable> <replaceable>acct-file</replaceable></command></screen>
</informalexample> where <emphasis
remap=it>pixel-width</emphasis> is the value from the
<emphasis remap=tt>px</emphasis> capability (default 0)
and <emphasis remap=it>pixel-height</emphasis> is the
value from the <emphasis remap=tt>py</emphasis> capability
(default 0).
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>The <emphasis>output filter</emphasis> is used only if
there is no text filter, or if header pages are enabled.
In my experience, output filters are rarely used. Section
<xref linkend="printing-advanced-of" remap="Output
Filters"> describe them. There are only two arguments
to an output filter:
<informalexample>
<screen><command>-w<replaceable>width</replaceable>
-l<replaceable>length</replaceable></command></screen>
</informalexample> which are identical to the text filters
<option>-w</option> and <option>-l</option>
arguments.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>Filters should also <emphasis>exit</emphasis> with the
following exit status:
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>exit 0</term>
<listitem>
<para>If the filter printed the file successfully.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>exit 1</term>
<listitem>
<para>If the filter failed to print the file but wants LPD
to try to print the file again. LPD will restart a
filter if it exits with this status.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>exit 2</term>
<listitem>
<para>If the filter failed to print the file and does not
want LPD to try again. LPD will throw out the
file.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>The text filter that comes with the FreeBSD release,
<filename>/usr/libexec/lpr/lpf</filename>, takes advantage of
the page width and length arguments to determine when to send a
form feed and how to account for printer usage. It uses the
login, host, and accounting file arguments to make the
accounting entries.</para>
<para>If you are shopping for filters, see if they are
LPD-compatible. If they are, they must support the argument
lists described above. If you plan on writing filters for
general use, then have them support the same argument lists and
exit codes.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="printing-advanced-if-conversion">
<title>Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers
</title>
<para> If you are the only user of your computer and PostScript
(or other language-based) printer, and you promise to never send
plain text to your printer and to never use features of various
programs that will want to send plain text to your printer, then
you do not need to worry about this section at all.</para>
<para>But, if you would like to send both PostScript and plain
text jobs to the printer, then you are urged to augment your
printer setup. To do so, we have the text filter detect if the
arriving job is plain text or PostScript. All PostScript jobs
must start with <literal>%!</literal> (for other
printer languages, see your printer documentation). If those are
the first two characters in the job, we have PostScript, and can
pass the rest of the job directly. If those are not the first
two characters in the file, then the filter will convert the
text into PostScript and print the result.</para>
<para>How do we do this?</para>
<para>If you have got a serial printer, a great way to do it is to
install <command>lprps</command>. <command>lprps</command> is a PostScript printer filter which
performs two-way communication with the printer. It updates the
printer's status file with verbose information from the printer,
so users and administrators can see exactly what the state of
the printer is (such as <errorname>toner low</errorname> or <errorname>paper jam</errorname>). But
more importantly, it includes a program called <command>psif</command> which detects whether the incoming
job is plain text and calls <command>textps</command>
(another program that comes with <command>lprps</command>) to convert it to PostScript. It
then uses <command>lprps</command> to send the job to
the printer.</para>
<para><command>lprps</command> is part of the FreeBSD
ports collection (see <xref linkend="ports" remap="The Ports
Collection">). You
can fetch, build and install it yourself, of course. After
installing <command>lprps</command>, just specify the
pathname to the <command>psif</command> program that
is part of <command>lprps</command>. If you
installed <command>lprps</command> from the ports
collection, use the following in the serial PostScript printer's
entry in <filename>/etc/printcap</filename>:
<informalexample>
<screen> :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:</screen>
</informalexample> You should also specify the <emphasis
remap=tt>rw</emphasis> capability; that tells LPD to open the
printer in read-write mode.</para>
<para>If you have a parallel PostScript printer (and therefore
cannot use two-way communication with the printer, which
<command>lprps</command> needs), you can use the
following shell script as the text filter:
<informalexample>
<programlisting>#!/bin/sh # # psif - Print PostScript or
plain text on a PostScript printer # Script version; NOT
the version that comes with lprps # Installed in
/usr/local/libexec/psif # read first_line
first_two_chars=`expr "$first_line" : '\(..\)'` if [
"$first_two_chars" = "%!" ]; then # # PostScript job, print
it. # echo $first_line &amp;&amp; cat &amp;&amp; printf
"\004" &amp;&amp; exit 0 exit 2 else # # Plain text,
convert it, then print it. # ( echo $first_line; cat ) |
/usr/local/bin/textps &amp;&amp; printf "\004" &amp;&amp;
exit 0 exit 2 fi</programlisting>
</informalexample> In the above script, <command>textps</command> is a program we installed
separately to convert plain text to PostScript. You can use any
text-to-PostScript program you wish. The FreeBSD ports
collection (see <xref linkend="ports" remap="The Ports
Collection">) includes a full featured text-to-PostScript
program called <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>a2ps</refentrytitle></citerefentry> that you might want to investigate.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="printing-advanced-ps">
<title>Simulating PostScript on Non-PostScript Printers
</title>
<para> PostScript is the <emphasis>de facto</emphasis>
standard for high quality typesetting and printing. PostScript
is, however, an <emphasis>expensive</emphasis> standard.
Thankfully, Alladin Enterprises has a free PostScript work-alike
called <emphasis remap=it>Ghostscript</emphasis> that runs with
FreeBSD. Ghostscript can read most PostScript files and can
render their pages onto a variety of devices, including many
brands of non-PostScript printers. By installing Ghostscript
and using a special text filter for your printer, you can make
your non-PostScript printer act like a real PostScript
printer.</para>
<para>Ghostscript should be in the FreeBSD ports collection, if
you would like to install it from there. You can fetch, build,
and install it quite easily yourself, as well.</para>
<para>To simulate PostScript, we have the text filter detect if it
is printing a PostScript file. If it is not, then the filter
will pass the file directly to the printer; otherwise, it will
use Ghostscript to first convert the file into a format the
printer will understand.</para>
<para>Here is an example: the following script is a text filter
for Hewlett Packard DeskJet 500 printers. For other printers,
substitute the <option>-sDEVICE</option> argument to the</para>
<para><citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>gs</refentrytitle></citerefentry> (Ghostscript) command. (Type <command>gs -h</command> to get a list of devices the current installation of Ghostscript supports.)
<informalexample>
<programlisting>#!/bin/sh # # ifhp - Print
Ghostscript-simulated PostScript on a DeskJet 500 #
Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpif # # Treat LF as CR+LF:
# printf "\033&amp;k2G" || exit 2 # # Read first two
characters of the file # read first_line
first_two_chars=`expr "$first_line" : '\(..\)'` if [
"$first_two_chars" = "%!" ]; then # # It is PostScript; use
Ghostscript to scan-convert and print it # /usr/local/bin/gs
-dSAFER -dNOPAUSE -q -sDEVICE=djet500 -sOutputFile=- - \
&amp;&amp; exit 0 else # # Plain text or HP/PCL, so just
print it directly; print a form # at the end to eject the
last page. # echo $first_line &amp;&amp; cat &amp;&amp;
printf "\f" &amp;&amp; exit 0 fi exit 2</programlisting>
</informalexample> Finally, you need to notify LPD of the filter
via the <emphasis remap=tt>if</emphasis> capability:
<informalexample>
<screen> :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif:</screen>
</informalexample> That is it. You can type <command>lpr plain.text</command> and <filename>lpr
whatever.ps</filename> and both should print
successfully.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="printing-advanced-convfilters">
<title>Conversion Filters</title>
<para> After completing the simple setup described in <xref
linkend="printing-simple" remap="Simple Printer Setup">, the
first thing you will probably want to do is install conversion
filters for your favorite file formats (besides plain ASCII
text).</para>
<sect4>
<title>Why Install Conversion Filters?</title>
<para> Conversion filters make printing various kinds of files
easy. As an example, suppose we do a lot of work with the TeX
typesetting system, and we have a PostScript printer. Every
time we generate a DVI file from TeX, we cannot print it
directly until we convert the DVI file into PostScript. The
command sequence goes like this:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; dvips seaweed-analysis.dvi
&prompt.user; lpr
seaweed-analysis.ps</screen>
</informalexample> By installing a conversion filter for DVI
files, we can skip the hand conversion step each time by
having LPD do it for us. Now, each time we get a DVI file, we
are just one step away from printing it:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; lpr -d seaweed-analysis.dvi</screen>
</informalexample> We got LPD to do the DVI file conversion
for us by specifying the <option>-d</option> option. Section
<xref
linkend="printing-lpr-options-format" remap="Formatting and
Conversion Options"> lists the conversion options.</para>
<para>For each of the conversion options you want a printer to
support, install a <emphasis>conversion filter</emphasis> and
specify its pathname in <filename>/etc/printcap</filename>. A
conversion filter is like the text filter for the simple
printer setup (see section <xref linkend="printing-textfilter"
remap="Installing the Text Filter">) except that instead of
printing plain text, the filter converts the file into a
format the printer can understand.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Which Conversions Filters Should I Install?
</title>
<para> You should install the conversion filters you expect to
use. If you print a lot of DVI data, then a DVI conversion
filter is in order. If you have got plenty of troff to print
out, then you probably want a troff filter.</para>
<para>The following table summarizes the filters that LPD works
with, their capability entries for the
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> file, and how to invoke
them with the <command>lpr</command> command:
<informalexample>
<programlisting> /etc/printcap File type
Capability lpr option ------------ -------------
---------- cifplot cf -c DVI
df -d plot gf -g ditroff
nf -n FORTRAN text rf -f troff
tf -t raster vf -v plain
text if none, -p, or -l</programlisting>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>In our example, using <command>lpr -d</command> means the
printer needs a <emphasis remap=tt>df</emphasis> capability in
its entry in <filename>/etc/printcap</filename>.</para>
<para>Despite what others might contend, formats like FORTRAN
text and plot are probably obsolete. At your site, you can
give new meanings to these or any of the formatting options
just by installing custom filters. For example, suppose you
would like to directly print Printerleaf files (files from the
Interleaf desktop publishing program), but will never print
plot files. You could install a Printerleaf conversion filter
under the <emphasis remap=tt>gf</emphasis> capability and then
educate your users that <command>lpr -g</command> mean <quote>print
Printerleaf files.</quote></para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Installing Conversion Filters</title>
<para> Since conversion filters are programs you install outside
of the base FreeBSD installation, they should probably go
under <filename>/usr/local</filename>. The directory
<filename>/usr/local/libexec</filename> is a popular location,
since they are specialized programs that only LPD will run;
regular users should not ever need to run them.</para>
<para>To enable a conversion filter, specify its pathname under
the appropriate capability for the destination printer in
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename>.</para>
<para>In our example, we will add the DVI conversion filter to
the entry for the printer named <hostid>bamboo</hostid>. Here is the example
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> file again, with the new
<emphasis remap=tt>df</emphasis> capability for the printer
<hostid>bamboo</hostid>
<informalexample>
<programlisting># # /etc/printcap for host rose - added df
filter for bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line
Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\
:if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple:
bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript
v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\
:lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\
:if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\
:df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf:</programlisting>
</informalexample> The DVI filter is a shell script named
<filename>/usr/local/libexec/psdf</filename>. Here is that
script:
<informalexample>
<programlisting>#!bin/sh # # psdf - DVI to PostScript
printer filter # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psdf # #
Invoked by lpd when user runs lpr -d # exec
/usr/local/bin/dvips -f | /usr/local/libexec/lprps
"$@"</programlisting>
</informalexample> This script runs <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>dvips</refentrytitle></citerefentry> in filter mode (the <option>-f</option> argument) on standard input, which is the job to print. It then starts the PostScript printer filter <command>lprps</command> (see section <xref linkend="printing-advanced-if-conversion"
remap="Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript
Printers">) with the arguments LPD passed to this script.
<command>lprps</command> will use those arguments
to account for the pages printed.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>More Conversion Filter Examples</title>
<para> Since there is no fixed set of steps to install
conversion filters, let me instead provide more examples. Use
these as guidance to making your own filters. Use them
directly, if appropriate.</para>
<para>This example script is a raster (well, GIF file, actually)
conversion filter for a Hewlett Packard LaserJet III-Si
printer:
<informalexample>
<programlisting>#!/bin/sh # # hpvf - Convert GIF files into
HP/PCL, then print # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpvf
PATH=/usr/X11R6/bin:$PATH; export PATH giftopnm | ppmtopgm
| pgmtopbm | pbmtolj -resolution 300 \ &amp;&amp; exit 0 \
|| exit 2</programlisting>
</informalexample> It works by converting the GIF file into a
portable anymap, converting that into a portable graymap,
converting that into a portable bitmap, and converting that
into LaserJet/PCL-compatible data.</para>
<para>Here is the <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> file with
an entry for a printer using the above filter:
<informalexample>
<programlisting># # /etc/printcap for host orchid #
teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\
:lp=/dev/lpt0:sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\
:if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif:\
:vf=/usr/local/libexec/hpvf:</programlisting>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>The following script is a conversion filter for troff data
from the groff typesetting system for the PostScript printer
named <hostid>bamboo</hostid>:
<informalexample>
<programlisting>#!/bin/sh # # pstf - Convert groff's troff
data into PS, then print. # Installed in
/usr/local/libexec/pstf # exec grops |
/usr/local/libexec/lprps "$@"</programlisting>
</informalexample> The above script makes use of <command>lprps</command> again to handle the communication
with the printer. If the printer were on a parallel port, we
would use this script instead:
<informalexample>
<programlisting>#!/bin/sh # # pstf - Convert groff's troff
data into PS, then print. # Installed in
/usr/local/libexec/pstf # exec grops</programlisting>
</informalexample> That is it. Here is the entry we need to
add to <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> to enable the
filter:
<informalexample>
<screen> :tf=/usr/local/libexec/pstf:</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Here is an example that might make old hands at FORTRAN
blush. It is a FORTRAN-text filter for any printer that can
directly print plain text. We will install it for the printer
<hostid>teak</hostid>:
<informalexample>
<programlisting>#!/bin/sh # # hprf - FORTRAN text filter for
LaserJet 3si: # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hprf #
printf "\033&amp;k2G" &amp;&amp; fpr &amp;&amp; printf
"\f" &amp;&amp; exit 0 exit 2</programlisting>
</informalexample> And we will add this line to the
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> for the printer <hostid>teak</hostid> to enable this filter:
<informalexample>
<screen> :rf=/usr/local/libexec/hprf:</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Here is one final, somewhat complex example. We will add
a DVI filter to the LaserJet printer <hostid>teak</hostid> introduced earlier. First, the
easy part: updating <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> with
the location of the DVI filter:
<informalexample>
<screen> :df=/usr/local/libexec/hpdf:</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Now, for the hard part: making the filter. For that, we
need a DVI-to-LaserJet/PCL conversion program. The FreeBSD
ports collection (see <xref linkend="ports" remap="The
Ports Collection">) has one: <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>dvi2xx</refentrytitle></citerefentry> is the
name of the package. Installing this package gives us the
program we need, <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>dvilj2p</refentrytitle></citerefentry>, which converts DVI into LaserJet IIp, LaserJet III, and LaserJet 2000 compatible codes.</para>
<para><citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>dvilj2p</refentrytitle></citerefentry> makes
the filter <command>hpdf</command> quite complex since
<citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>dvilj2p</refentrytitle></citerefentry> cannot
read from standard input. It wants to work with a filename.
What is worse, the filename has to end in
<filename>.dvi</filename> so using
<filename>/dev/fd/0</filename> for standard input is
problematic. We can get around that problem by linking
(symbolically) a temporary file name (one that ends in
<filename>.dvi</filename>) to <filename>/dev/fd/0</filename>,
thereby forcing <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>dvilj2p</refentrytitle></citerefentry> to read from standard input.</para>
<para>The only other fly in the ointment is the fact that we
cannot use <filename>/tmp</filename> for the temporary link.
Symbolic links are owned by user and group <emphasis
remap=tt>bin</emphasis>. The filter runs as user <emphasis
remap=tt>daemon</emphasis>. And the
<filename>/tmp</filename> directory has the sticky bit set.
The filter can create the link, but it will not be able clean
up when done and remove it since the link will belong to a
different user.</para>
<para>Instead, the filter will make the symbolic link in the
current working directory, which is the spooling directory
(specified by the <emphasis remap=tt>sd</emphasis> capability
in <filename>/etc/printcap</filename>). This is a perfect
place for filters to do their work, especially since there is
(sometimes) more free disk space in the spooling directory
than under <filename>/tmp</filename>.</para>
<para>Here, finally, is the filter:
<informalexample>
<programlisting>#!/bin/sh # # hpdf - Print DVI data on
HP/PCL printer # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpdf
PATH=/usr/local/bin:$PATH; export PATH # # Define a
function to clean up our temporary files. These exist #
in the current directory, which will be the spooling
directory # for the printer. # cleanup() { rm -f
hpdf$$.dvi } # # Define a function to handle fatal
errors: print the given message # and exit 2. Exiting
with 2 tells LPD to do not try to reprint the # job. #
fatal() { echo "$@" 1&gt;&amp;2 cleanup exit 2 } # # If
user removes the job, LPD will send SIGINT, so trap SIGINT
# (and a few other signals) to clean up after ourselves.
# trap cleanup 1 2 15 # # Make sure we are not colliding
with any existing files. # cleanup # # Link the DVI input
file to standard input (the file to print). # ln -s
/dev/fd/0 hpdf$$.dvi || fatal "Cannot symlink /dev/fd/0" #
# Make LF = CR+LF # printf "\033&amp;k2G" || fatal
"Cannot initialize printer" # # Convert and print.
Return value from dvilj2p does not seem to be # reliable,
so we ignore it. # dvilj2p -M1 -q -e- dfhp$$.dvi # #
Clean up and exit # cleanup exit 0</programlisting>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="printing-advanced-autoconv">
<title>Automated Conversion: An Alternative To Conversion
Filters
</title>
<para> All these conversion filters accomplish a lot for your
printing environment, but at the cost forcing the user to
specify (on the <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
command line) which one to use. If your users are not
particularly computer literate, having to specify a filter
option will become annoying. What is worse, though, is that
an incorrectly specified filter option may run a filter on the
wrong type of file and cause your printer to spew out hundreds
of sheets of paper.</para>
<para>Rather than install conversion filters at all, you might
want to try having the text filter (since it is the default
filter) detect the type of file it has been asked to print and
then automatically run the right conversion filter. Tools
such as <command>file</command> can be of help
here. Of course, it will be hard to determine the differences
between <emphasis>some</emphasis> file types---and, of course,
you can still provide conversion filters just for them.</para>
<para>The FreeBSD ports collection has a text filter that
performs automatic conversion called <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>apsfilter</refentrytitle></citerefentry>. It can detect plain text, PostScript, and DVI files, run the proper conversions, and print.</para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="printing-advanced-of">
<title>Output Filters</title>
<para> The LPD spooling system supports one other type of filter
that we have not yet explored: an output filter. An output
filter is intended for printing plain text only, like the text
filter, but with many simplifications. If you are using an
output filter but no text filter, then
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>LPD starts an output filter once for the entire job
instead of once for each file in the job.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>LPD does not make any provision to identify the start
or the end of files within the job for the output filter.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>LPD does not pass the user's login or host to the
filter, so it is not intended to do accounting. In fact,
it gets only two arguments:
<informalexample>
<screen><command>-w<replaceable>width</replaceable>
-l<replaceable>length</replaceable></command></screen>
</informalexample> where <emphasis
remap=it>width</emphasis> is from the <emphasis
remap=tt>pw</emphasis> capability and <emphasis
remap=it>length</emphasis> is from the <emphasis
remap=tt>pl</emphasis> capability for the printer in
question.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>Do not be seduced by an output filter's simplicity. If you
would like each file in a job to start on a different page an
output filter <emphasis>will not work</emphasis>. Use a text
filter (also known as an input filter); see section <xref
linkend="printing-textfilter" remap="Installing the Text
Filter">. Furthermore, an output filter is actually
<emphasis>more complex</emphasis> in that it has to examine the
byte stream being sent to it for special flag characters and
must send signals to itself on behalf of LPD.</para>
<para>However, an output filter is <emphasis>necessary</emphasis>
if you want header pages and need to send escape sequences or
other initialization strings to be able to print the header
page. (But it is also <emphasis>futile</emphasis> if you want
to charge header pages to the requesting user's account, since
LPD does not give any user or host information to the output
filter.)</para>
<para>On a single printer, LPD allows both an output filter and
text or other filters. In such cases, LPD will start the output
filter to print the header page (see section <xref
linkend="printing-advanced-header-pages" remap="Header
Pages">) only. LPD then expects the output filter to
<emphasis>stop itself</emphasis> by sending two bytes to the
filter: ASCII 031 followed by ASCII 001. When an output filter
sees these two bytes (031, 001), it should stop by sending
SIGSTOP to itself. When LPD's done running other filters, it
will restart the output filter by sending SIGCONT to it.</para>
<para>If there is an output filter but <emphasis>no</emphasis>
text filter and LPD is working on a plain text job, LPD uses the
output filter to do the job. As stated before, the output
filter will print each file of the job in sequence with no
intervening form feeds or other paper advancement, and this is
probably <emphasis>not</emphasis> what you want. In almost all
cases, you need a text filter.</para>
<para>The program <command>lpf</command>, which we
introduced earlier as a text filter, can also run as an output
filter. If you need a quick-and-dirty output filter but do not
want to write the byte detection and signal sending code, try
<command>lpf</command>. You can also wrap <command>lpf</command> in a shell script to handle any
initialization codes the printer might require.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="printing-advanced-lpf">
<title><command>lpf</command>: a Text Filter</title>
<para> The program <filename>/usr/libexec/lpr/lpf</filename> that
comes with FreeBSD binary distribution is a text filter (input
filter) that can indent output (job submitted with <command>lpr -i</command>), allow literal characters to pass
(job submitted with <command>lpr -l</command>), adjust the
printing position for backspaces and tabs in the job, and
account for pages printed. It can also act like an output
filter.</para>
<para><command>lpf</command> is suitable for many
printing environments. And although it has no capability to
send initialization sequences to a printer, it is easy to write
a shell script to do the needed initialization and then execute
<command>lpf</command>.</para>
<para>In order for <command>lpf</command> to do page
accounting correctly, it needs correct values filled in for the
<emphasis remap=tt>pw</emphasis> and <emphasis
remap=tt>pl</emphasis> capabilities in the
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> file. It uses these values
to determine how much text can fit on a page and how many pages
were in a user's job. For more information on printer
accounting, see <xref
linkend="printing-advanced-acct" remap="Accounting for Printer
Usage">.</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="printing-advanced-header-pages">
<title>Header Pages</title>
<para> If you have <emphasis>lots</emphasis> of users, all of them
using various printers, then you probably want to consider
<emphasis>header pages</emphasis> as a necessary evil.</para>
<para>Header pages, also known as <emphasis>banner</emphasis> or
<emphasis>burst pages</emphasis> identify to whom jobs belong
after they are printed. They are usually printed in large, bold
letters, perhaps with decorative borders, so that in a stack of
printouts they stand out from the real documents that comprise
users' jobs. They enable users to locate their jobs quickly. The
obvious drawback to a header page is that it is yet one more sheet
that has to be printed for every job, their ephemeral usefulness
lasting not more than a few minutes, ultimately finding themselves
in a recycling bin or rubbish heap. (Note that header pages go
with each job, not each file in a job, so the paper waste might
not be that bad.)</para>
<para>The LPD system can provide header pages automatically for your
printouts <emphasis>if</emphasis> your printer can directly print
plain text. If you have a PostScript printer, you will need an
external program to generate the header page; see <xref
linkend="printing-advanced-header-pages-ps" remap="Header Pages
on PostScript Printers">.</para>
<sect3
id="printing-advanced-header-pages-enabling">
<title>Enabling Header Pages</title>
<para> In the <xref linkend="printing-simple" remap="Simple
Printer Setup">, we turned off header pages by
specifying <literal>sh</literal> (meaning <quote>suppress
header</quote>) in the <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> file. To
enable header pages for a printer, just remove the <emphasis
remap=tt>sh</emphasis> capability.</para>
<para>Sounds too easy, right?</para>
<para>You are right. You <emphasis>might</emphasis> have to
provide an output filter to send initialization strings to the
printer. Here is an example output filter for Hewlett Packard
PCL-compatible printers:
<informalexample>
<programlisting>#!/bin/sh # # hpof - Output filter for
Hewlett Packard PCL-compatible printers # Installed in
/usr/local/libexec/hpof printf "\033&amp;k2G" || exit 2 exec
/usr/libexec/lpr/lpf</programlisting>
</informalexample> Specify the path to the output filter in the
<emphasis remap=tt>of</emphasis> capability. See <xref
linkend="printing-advanced-of"
remap="Output Filters"> for more information.</para>
<para>Here is an example <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> file
for the printer <hostid>teak</hostid> that we
introduced earlier; we enabled header pages and added the above
output filter:
<informalexample>
<programlisting># # /etc/printcap for host orchid #
teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\
:lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\
:if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/hpvf:\
:of=/usr/local/libexec/hpof:</programlisting>
</informalexample> Now, when users print jobs to <hostid>teak</hostid>, they get a header page with each
job. If users want to spend time searching for their printouts,
they can suppress header pages by submitting the job with
<command>lpr -h</command>; see <xref
linkend="printing-lpr-options-misc" remap="Header Page
Options"> for more <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
options.</para>
<note>
<para>LPD prints a form feed character after the header page.
If your printer uses a different character or sequence of
characters to eject a page, specify them with the <emphasis
remap=tt>ff</emphasis> capability in
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename>.</para>
</note>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="printing-advanced-header-pages-controlling">
<title>Controlling Header Pages</title>
<para> By enabling header pages, LPD will produce a <emphasis>long
header</emphasis>, a full page of large letters identifying
the user, host, and job. Here is an example (kelly printed the
job named outline from host rose):
<informalexample>
<screen>k ll ll k l
l k l l k k eeee l
l y y k k e e l l y y k k
eeeeee l l y y kk k e l
l y y k k e e l l y yy k
k eeee lll lll yyy y y y y yyyy ll t
l i t l oooo u u ttttt l
ii n nnn eeee o o u u t l
i nn n e e o o u u t l
i n n eeeeee o o u u t l
i n n e o o u uu t t l i
n n e e oooo uuu u tt lll iii
n n eeee r rrr oooo ssss eeee rr r o
o s s e e r o o ss eeeeee r
o o ss e r o o s s e e r
oooo ssss eeee Job: outline Date: Sun Sep 17
11:04:58 1995</screen>
</informalexample> LPD appends a form feed after this text so
the job starts on a new page (unless you have <emphasis
remap=tt>sf</emphasis> (suppress form feeds) in the
destination printer's entry in
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename>).</para>
<para>If you prefer, LPD can make a <emphasis>short
header</emphasis>; specify <literal>sb</literal>
(short banner) in the <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> file.
The header page will look like this:
<informalexample>
<screen>rose:kelly Job: outline Date: Sun Sep 17 11:07:51
1995</screen>
</informalexample> Also by default, LPD prints the header page
first, then the job. To reverse that, specify <literal>hl</literal> (header last) in
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename>.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="printing-advanced-header-pages-accounting">
<title>Accounting for Header Pages</title>
<para> Using LPD's built-in header pages enforces a particular
paradigm when it comes to printer accounting: header pages must
be <emphasis>free of charge</emphasis>.</para>
<para>Why?</para>
<para>Because the output filter is the only external program that
will have control when the header page is printed that could do
accounting, and it is not provided with any <emphasis>user or
host</emphasis> information or an accounting file, so it has
no idea whom to charge for printer use. It is also not enough
to just <quote>add one page</quote> to the text filter or any of the
conversion filters (which do have user and host information)
since users can suppress header pages with <command>lpr
-h</command>. They could still be charged for header pages
they did not print. Basically, <command>lpr -h</command> will
be the preferred option of environmentally-minded users, but you
cannot offer any incentive to use it.</para>
<para>It is <emphasis>still not enough</emphasis> to have each of
the filters generate their own header pages (thereby being able
to charge for them). If users wanted the option of suppressing
the header pages with <command>lpr -h</command>, they will still
get them and be charged for them since LPD does not pass any
knowledge of the <option>-h</option> option to any of the
filters.</para>
<para>So, what are your options?</para>
<para>You can
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Accept LPD's paradigm and make header pages free.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Install an alternative to LPD, such as LPDng or PLP.
Section <xref linkend="printing-lpd-alternatives"
remap="Alternatives to the Standard Spooler"> tells
more about other spooling software you can substitute for
LPD.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Write a <emphasis>smart</emphasis> output filter.
Normally, an output filter is not meant to do anything
more than initialize a printer or do some simple character
conversion. It is suited for header pages and plain text
jobs (when there is no text (input) filter). But, if there
is a text filter for the plain text jobs, then LPD will
start the output filter only for the header pages. And
the output filter can parse the header page text that LPD
generates to determine what user and host to charge for
the header page. The only other problem with this method
is that the output filter still does not know what
accounting file to use (it is not passed the name of the
file from the <emphasis remap=tt>af</emphasis>
capability), but if you have a well-known accounting file,
you can hard-code that into the output filter. To
facilitate the parsing step, use the <emphasis
remap=tt>sh</emphasis> (short header) capability in
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename>. Then again, all that
might be too much trouble, and users will certainly
appreciate the more generous system administrator who
makes header pages free.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="printing-advanced-header-pages-ps">
<title>Header Pages on PostScript Printers</title>
<para> As described above, LPD can generate a plain text header
page suitable for many printers. Of course, PostScript cannot
directly print plain text, so the header page feature of LPD is
useless---or mostly so.</para>
<para>One obvious way to get header pages is to have every
conversion filter and the text filter generate the header page.
The filters should should use the user and host arguments to
generate a suitable header page. The drawback of this method is
that users will always get a header page, even if they submit
jobs with <command>lpr -h</command>.</para>
<para>Let us explore this method. The following script takes
three arguments (user login name, host name, and job name) and
makes a simple PostScript header page:
<informalexample>
<programlisting>#!/bin/sh # # make-ps-header - make a
PostScript header page on stdout # Installed in
/usr/local/libexec/make-ps-header # # # These are
PostScript units (72 to the inch). Modify for A4 or #
whatever size paper you are using: # page_width=612
page_height=792 border=72 # # Check arguments # if [ $# -ne
3 ]; then echo "Usage: `basename $0` &lt;user&gt;
&lt;host&gt; &lt;job&gt;" 1&gt;&amp;2 exit 1 fi # # Save
these, mostly for readability in the PostScript, below. #
user=$1 host=$2 job=$3 date=`date` # # Send the PostScript
code to stdout. # exec cat &lt;&lt;EOF %!PS % % Make sure
we do not interfere with user's job that will follow % save
% % Make a thick, unpleasant border around the edge of the
paper. % $border $border moveto $page_width $border 2 mul
sub 0 rlineto 0 $page_height $border 2 mul sub rlineto
currentscreen 3 -1 roll pop 100 3 1 roll setscreen $border 2
mul $page_width sub 0 rlineto closepath 0.8 setgray 10
setlinewidth stroke 0 setgray % % Display user's login
name, nice and large and prominent % /Helvetica-Bold
findfont 64 scalefont setfont $page_width ($user)
stringwidth pop sub 2 div $page_height 200 sub moveto
($user) show % % Now show the boring particulars %
/Helvetica findfont 14 scalefont setfont /y 200 def [ (Job:)
(Host:) (Date:) ] { 200 y moveto show /y y 18 sub def }
forall /Helvetica-Bold findfont 14 scalefont setfont /y 200
def [ ($job) ($host) ($date) ] { 270 y moveto show /y y 18
sub def } forall % % That is it % restore showpage
EOF</programlisting>
</informalexample> Now, each of the conversion filters and the
text filter can call this script to first generate the header
page, and then print the user's job. Here is the DVI conversion
filter from earlier in this document, modified to make a header
page:
<informalexample>
<programlisting>#!/bin/sh # # psdf - DVI to PostScript
printer filter # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psdf # #
Invoked by lpd when user runs lpr -d # orig_args="$@" fail()
{ echo "$@" 1&gt;&amp;2 exit 2 } while getopts "x:y:n:h:"
option; do case $option in x|y) ;; # Ignore n)
login=$OPTARG ;; h) host=$OPTARG ;; *) echo "LPD
started `basename $0` wrong." 1&gt;&amp;2 exit 2 ;; esac
done [ "$login" ] || fail "No login name" [ "$host" ] ||
fail "No host name" ( /usr/local/libexec/make-ps-header
$login $host "DVI File" /usr/local/bin/dvips -f ) | eval
/usr/local/libexec/lprps $orig_args</programlisting>
</informalexample> Notice how the filter has to parse the
argument list in order to determine the user and host name. The
parsing for the other conversion filters is identical. The text
filter takes a slightly different set of arguments, though (see
section <xref linkend="printing-advanced-filters"
remap="How Filters Work">).</para>
<para>As we have mentioned before, the above scheme, though fairly
simple, disables the <quote>suppress header page</quote> option (the
<option>-h</option> option) to <command>lpr</command>. If users wanted to save a tree (or a
few pennies, if you charge for header pages), they would not be
able to do so, since every filter's going to print a header page
with every job.</para>
<para>To allow users to shut off header pages on a per-job basis,
you will need to use the trick introduced in section
<xref linkend="printing-advanced-header-pages-accounting"
remap="Accounting for Header Pages">: write an output filter
that parses the LPD-generated header page and produces a
PostScript version. If the user submits the job with
<command>lpr -h</command>, then LPD will not generate a header
page, and neither will your output filter. Otherwise, your
output filter will read the text from LPD and send the
appropriate header page PostScript code to the printer.</para>
<para>If you have a PostScript printer on a serial line, you can
make use of <command>lprps</command>, which comes
with an output filter, <command>psof</command>, which
does the above. Note that <command>psof</command>
does not charge for header pages.</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="printing-advanced-network-printers">
<title>Networked Printing</title>
<para> FreeBSD supports networked printing: sending jobs to remote
printers. Networked printing generally refers to two different
things:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Accessing a printer attached to a remote host. You
install a printer that has a conventional serial or parallel
interface on one host. Then, you set up LPD to enable
access to the printer from other hosts on the network.
Section <xref
linkend="printing-advanced-network-rm" remap="Printers
Installed on Remote Hosts"> tells how to do this.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Accessing a printer attached directly to a network. The
printer has a network interface in addition (or in place of)
a more conventional serial or parallel interface. Such a
printer might work as follows:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>It might understand the LPD protocol and can even
queue jobs from remote hosts. In this case, it acts
just like a regular host running LPD. Follow the same
procedure in section <xref
linkend="printing-advanced-network-rm"
remap="Printers Installed on Remote Hosts"> to
set up such a printer.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>It might support a data stream network connection.
In this case, you <quote>attach</quote> the printer to one host
on the network by making that host responsible for
spooling jobs and sending them to the printer.
Section <xref
linkend="printing-advanced-network-net-if"
remap="Printers with Networked Data Stream
Interfaces"> gives some suggestions on installing
such printers.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<sect3
id="printing-advanced-network-rm">
<title>Printers Installed on Remote Hosts</title>
<para> The LPD spooling system has built-in support for sending
jobs to other hosts also running LPD (or are compatible with
LPD). This feature enables you to install a printer on one host
and make it accessible from other hosts. It also works with
printers that have network interfaces that understand the LPD
protocol. </para>
<para>To enable this kind of remote printing, first install a
printer on one host, the <emphasis>printer host</emphasis>,
using the simple printer setup described in <xref
linkend="printing-simple" remap="Simple Printer Setup">. Do
any advanced setup in <xref linkend="printing-advanced"
remap="Advanced Printer Setup"> that you need. Make sure to
test the printer and see if it works with the features of LPD
you have enabled.</para>
<para>If you are using a printer with a network interface that is
compatible with LPD, then the <emphasis>printer host</emphasis>
in the discussion below is the printer itself, and the
<emphasis>printer name</emphasis> is the name you configured for
the printer. See the documentation that accompanied your
printer and/or printer-network interface.</para>
<para>Then, on the other hosts you want to have access to the
printer, make an entry in their
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> files with the following:
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Name the entry anything you want. For simplicity,
though, you probably want to use the same name and aliases
as on the printer host.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Leave the <emphasis remap=tt>lp</emphasis> capability
blank, explicitly (<literal>:lp=:</literal>).
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Make a spooling directory and specify its location in
the <emphasis remap=tt>sd</emphasis> capability. LPD will
store jobs here before they get sent to the printer host.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Place the name of the printer host in the <emphasis
remap=tt>rm</emphasis> capability.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Place the printer name on the <emphasis>printer
host</emphasis> in the <emphasis remap=tt>rp</emphasis>
capability.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist> That is it. You do not need to list conversion
filters, page dimensions, or anything else in the
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> file.</para>
<para>Here is an example. The host rose has two printers,
<hostid>bamboo</hostid> and <hostid>rattan</hostid>. We will enable users on the host
orchid to print to those printers. Here is the
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> file for orchid (back from
section
<xref linkend="printing-advanced-header-pages-enabling"
remap="Enabling Header Pages">). It already had the entry for
the printer <hostid>teak</hostid>; we have added
entries for the two printers on the host rose:
<informalexample>
<programlisting># # /etc/printcap for host orchid - added
(remote) printers on rose # # # teak is local; it is
connected directly to orchid: # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett
Packard LaserJet 3Si:\
:lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\
:if=/usr/local/libexec/ifhp:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/vfhp:\
:of=/usr/local/libexec/ofhp: # # rattan is connected to
rose; send jobs for rattan to rose: #
rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\
:lp=:rm=rose:rp=rattan:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan: # # bamboo
is connected to rose as well: #
bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript
v51.4:\
:lp=:rm=rose:rp=bamboo:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:</programlisting>
</informalexample> Then, we just need to make spooling
directories on orchid:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; mkdir -p /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo
&prompt.root; chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/rattan
/var/spool/lpd/bamboo &prompt.root; chown
daemon.daemon /var/spool/lpd/rattan
/var/spool/lpd/bamboo</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Now, users on orchid can print to <hostid>rattan</hostid> and <hostid>bamboo</hostid>. If, for example, a user on orchid
typed
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; lpr -P bamboo -d sushi-review.dvi</screen>
</informalexample> the LPD system on orchid would copy the job
to the spooling directory
<filename>/var/spool/lpd/bamboo</filename> and note that it was
a DVI job. As soon as the host rose has room in its <hostid>bamboo</hostid> spooling directory, the two LPDs
would transfer the file to rose. The file would wait in rose's
queue until it was finally printed. It would be converted from
DVI to PostScript (since bamboo is a PostScript printer) on
rose.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="printing-advanced-network-net-if">
<title>Printers with Networked Data Stream Interfaces</title>
<para> Often, when you buy a network interface card for a printer,
you can get two versions: one which emulates a spooler (the more
expensive version), or one which just lets you send data to it
as if you were using a serial or parallel port (the cheaper
version). This section tells how to use the cheaper version.
For the more expensive one, see the previous section <xref
linkend="printing-advanced-network-rm" remap="Printers
Installed on Remote Hosts">.</para>
<para>The format of the <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> file
lets you specify what serial or parallel interface to use, and
(if you are using a serial interface), what baud rate, whether
to use flow control, delays for tabs, conversion of newlines,
and more. But there is no way to specify a connection to a
printer that is listening on a TCP/IP or other network
port.</para>
<para>To send data to a networked printer, you need to develop a
communications program that can be called by the text and
conversion filters. Here is one such example: the script
<command>netprint</command> takes all data on
standard input and sends it to a network-attached printer. We
specify the hostname of the printer as the first argument and
the port number to which to connect as the second argument to
<command>netprint</command>. Note that this supports
one-way communication only (FreeBSD to printer); many network
printers support two-way communication, and you might want to
take advantage of that (to get printer status, perform
accounting, etc.).
<informalexample>
<programlisting>#!/usr/bin/perl # # netprint - Text filter
for printer attached to network # Installed in
/usr/local/libexec/netprint # $#ARGV eq 1 || die "Usage: $0
&lt;printer-hostname&gt; &lt;port-number&gt;"; $printer_host
= $ARGV[0]; $printer_port = $ARGV[1]; require
'sys/socket.ph'; ($ignore, $ignore, $protocol) =
getprotobyname('tcp'); ($ignore, $ignore, $ignore, $ignore,
$address) = gethostbyname($printer_host); $sockaddr =
pack('S n a4 x8', &amp;AF_INET, $printer_port, $address);
socket(PRINTER, &amp;PF_INET, &amp;SOCK_STREAM, $protocol)
|| die "Can't create TCP/IP stream socket: $!";
connect(PRINTER, $sockaddr) || die "Can't contact
$printer_host: $!"; while (&lt;STDIN&gt;) { print PRINTER; }
exit 0;</programlisting>
</informalexample> We can then use this script in various
filters. Suppose we had a Diablo 750-N line printer connected
to the network. The printer accepts data to print on port
number 5100. The host name of the printer is scrivener. Here
is the text filter for the printer:
<informalexample>
<programlisting>#!/bin/sh # # diablo-if-net - Text filter for
Diablo printer `scrivener' listening # on port 5100.
Installed in /usr/local/libexec/diablo-if-net # exec
/usr/libexec/lpr/lpf "$@" | /usr/local/libexec/netprint
scrivener 5100</programlisting>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="printing-advanced-restricting">
<title>Restricting Printer Usage</title>
<para> This section gives information on restricting printer usage.
The LPD system lets you control who can access a printer, both
locally or remotely, whether they can print multiple copies, how
large their jobs can be, and how large the printer queues can
get.</para>
<sect3
id="printing-advanced-restricting-copies">
<title>Restricting Multiple Copies</title>
<para> The LPD system makes it easy for users to print multiple
copies of a file. Users can print jobs with <command>lpr
-#5</command> (for example) and get five copies of each file
in the job. Whether this is a good thing is up to you.</para>
<para>If you feel multiple copies cause unnecessary wear and tear
on your printers, you can disable the <option>-#</option> option
to <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle></citerefentry> by
adding the <emphasis remap=tt>sc</emphasis> capability to the
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> file. When users submit jobs
with the <option>-#</option> option, they will see
<informalexample>
<screen>lpr: multiple copies are not allowed</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Note that if you have set up access to a printer remotely
(see section <xref linkend="printing-advanced-network-rm"
remap="Printers Installed on Remote Hosts">), you need
the <emphasis remap=tt>sc</emphasis> capability on the remote
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> files as well, or else users
will still be able to submit multiple-copy jobs by using another
host.</para>
<para>Here is an example. This is the
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> file for the host rose. The
printer <hostid>rattan</hostid> is quite hearty, so
we will allow multiple copies, but the laser printer <hostid>bamboo</hostid>'s a bit more delicate, so we will
disable multiple copies by adding the <emphasis
remap=tt>sc</emphasis> capability:
<informalexample>
<programlisting># # /etc/printcap for host rose - restrict
multiple copies on bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630
Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\
:lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple:
bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript
v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:\
:lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\
:if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\
:df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf:</programlisting>
</informalexample> Now, we also need to add the <emphasis
remap=tt>sc</emphasis> capability on the host orchid's
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> (and while we are at it, let
us disable multiple copies for the printer <hostid>teak</hostid>):
<informalexample>
<programlisting># # /etc/printcap for host orchid - no
multiple copies for local # printer teak or remote printer
bamboo teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\
:lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:sc:\
:if=/usr/local/libexec/ifhp:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/vfhp:\
:of=/usr/local/libexec/ofhp: rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo
630 Line Printer:\
:lp=:rm=rose:rp=rattan:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:
bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript
v51.4:\
:lp=:rm=rose:rp=bamboo:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:</programlisting>
</informalexample> By using the <emphasis remap=tt>sc</emphasis>
capability, we prevent the use of <command>lpr -#</command>, but
that still does not prevent users from running <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
multiple times, or from submitting the same file multiple times
in one job like this:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; lpr forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign
forsale.sign forsale.sign </screen>
</informalexample> There are many ways to prevent this abuse
(including ignoring it) which you are free to explore.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="printing-advanced-restricting-access">
<title>Restricting Access To Printers</title>
<para> You can control who can print to what printers by using the
UNIX group mechanism and the <emphasis remap=tt>rg</emphasis>
capability in <filename>/etc/printcap</filename>. Just place
the users you want to have access to a printer in a certain
group, and then name that group in the <emphasis
remap=tt>rg</emphasis> capability.</para>
<para>Users outside the group (including root) will be greeted
with
<informalexample>
<screen>lpr: Not a member of the restricted group</screen>
</informalexample> if they try to print to the controlled
printer.</para>
<para>As with the <emphasis remap=tt>sc</emphasis> (suppress
multiple copies) capability, you need to specify <emphasis
remap=tt>rg</emphasis> on remote hosts that also have access
to your printers, if you feel it is appropriate (see section
<xref linkend="printing-advanced-network-rm"
remap="Printers Installed on Remote Hosts">).</para>
<para>For example, we will let anyone access the printer <hostid>rattan</hostid>, but only those in group <emphasis
remap=tt>artists</emphasis> can use <hostid>bamboo</hostid>. Here is the familiar
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> for host rose:
<informalexample>
<programlisting># # /etc/printcap for host rose - restricted
group for bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line
Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\
:if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple:
bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript
v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:\
:lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\
:if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\
:df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf:</programlisting>
</informalexample> Let us leave the other example
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> file (for the host orchid)
alone. Of course, anyone on orchid can print to <hostid>bamboo</hostid>. It might be the case that we only
allow certain logins on orchid anyway, and want them to have
access to the printer. Or not.</para>
<note>
<para>There can be only one restricted group per printer.</para>
</note>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="printing-advanced-restricting-sizes">
<title>Controlling Sizes of Jobs Submitted</title>
<para> If you have many users accessing the printers, you probably
need to put an upper limit on the sizes of the files users can
submit to print. After all, there is only so much free space on
the filesystem that houses the spooling directories, and you
also need to make sure there is room for the jobs of other
users.</para>
<para>LPD enables you to limit the maximum byte size a file in a
job can be with the <emphasis remap=tt>mx</emphasis> capability.
The units are in BUFSIZ blocks, which are 1024 bytes. If you
put a zero for this capability, there will be no limit on file
size.</para>
<note>
<para>The limit applies to <emphasis>files</emphasis> in a job,
and <emphasis>not</emphasis> the total job size.</para>
</note>
<para>LPD will not refuse a file that is larger than the limit you
place on a printer. Instead, it will queue as much of the file
up to the limit, which will then get printed. The rest will be
discarded. Whether this is correct behavior is up for
debate.</para>
<para>Let us add limits to our example printers <hostid>rattan</hostid> and <hostid>bamboo</hostid>. Since those artists' PostScript
files tend to be large, we will limit them to five megabytes.
We will put no limit on the plain text line printer:
<informalexample>
<programlisting># # /etc/printcap for host rose # # # No
limit on job size: # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line
Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\
:if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: # # Limit of five
megabytes: # bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455
PostScript v51.4:\
:sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:mx#5000:\
:lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\
:if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\
:df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf:</programlisting>
</informalexample> Again, the limits apply to the local users
only. If you have set up access to your printers remotely,
remote users will not get those limits. You will need to
specify the <emphasis remap=tt>mx</emphasis> capability in the
remote <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> files as well. See
section <xref
linkend="printing-advanced-network-rm" remap="Printers
Installed on Remote Hosts"> for more information on
remote printing.</para>
<para>There is another specialized way to limit job sizes from
remote printers; see section <xref
linkend="printing-advanced-restricting-remote"
remap="Restricting Jobs from Remote Printers">.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="printing-advanced-restricting-remote">
<title>Restricting Jobs from Remote Printers</title>
<para> The LPD spooling system provides several ways to restrict
print jobs submitted from remote hosts:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>Host restrictions</term>
<listitem>
<para>You can control from which remote hosts a local LPD
accepts requests with the files
<filename>/etc/hosts.equiv</filename> and
<filename>/etc/hosts.lpd</filename>. LPD checks to see
if an incoming request is from a host listed in either
one of these files. If not, LPD refuses the
request.</para>
<para>The format of these files is simple: one host name
per line. Note that the file
<filename>/etc/hosts.equiv</filename> is also used by
the
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ruserok</refentrytitle><manvolnum>3</manvolnum></citerefentry> protocol, and affects programs like <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>rsh</refentrytitle></citerefentry> and
<citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>rcp</refentrytitle></citerefentry>, so be careful.</para>
<para>For example, here is the
<filename>/etc/hosts.lpd</filename> file on the host
rose:
<informalexample>
<programlisting>orchid violet
madrigal.fishbaum.de</programlisting>
</informalexample> This means rose will accept requests
from the hosts orchid, violet, and madrigal.fishbaum.de.
If any other host tries to access rose's LPD, LPD will
refuse them.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Size restrictions</term>
<listitem>
<para>You can control how much free space there needs to
remain on the filesystem where a spooling directory
resides. Make a file called
<filename>minfree</filename> in the spooling directory
for the local printer. Insert in that file a number
representing how many disk blocks (512 bytes) of free
space there has to be for a remote job to be
accepted.</para>
<para>This lets you insure that remote users will not fill
your filesystem. You can also use it to give a certain
priority to local users: they will be able to queue jobs
long after the free disk space has fallen below the
amount specified in the <filename>minfree</filename>
file.</para>
<para>For example, let us add a
<filename>minfree</filename> file for the printer
<hostid>bamboo</hostid>. We examine
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> to find the spooling
directory for this printer; here is <hostid>bamboo</hostid>'s entry:
<informalexample>
<screen>bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455
PostScript v51.4:\
:sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:mx#5000:\
:lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:mx#5000:\
:if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\
:df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf:</screen>
</informalexample> The spooling directory is the given
in the <emphasis remap=tt>sd</emphasis> capability. We
will make three megabytes (which is 6144 disk blocks)
the amount of free disk space that must exist on the
filesystem for LPD to accept remote jobs:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; echo 6144 &gt;
/var/spool/lpd/bamboo/minfree</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>User restrictions</term>
<listitem>
<para>You can control which remote users can print to
local printers by specifying the <emphasis
remap=tt>rs</emphasis> capability in
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename>. When <emphasis
remap=tt>rs</emphasis> appears in the entry for a
locally-attached printer, LPD will accept jobs from
remote hosts <emphasis>if</emphasis> the user submitting
the job also has an account of the same login name on
the local host. Otherwise, LPD refuses the job.</para>
<para>This capability is particularly useful in an
environment where there are (for example) different
departments sharing a network, and some users transcend
departmental boundaries. By giving them accounts on
your systems, they can use your printers from their own
departmental systems. If you would rather allow them to
use <emphasis>only</emphasis> your printers and not your
compute resources, you can give them <quote>token</quote> accounts,
with no home directory and a useless shell like
<filename>/usr/bin/false</filename>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="printing-advanced-acct">
<title>Accounting for Printer Usage</title>
<para> So, you need to charge for printouts. And why not? Paper
and ink cost money. And then there are maintenance
costs---printers are loaded with moving parts and tend to break
down. You have examined your printers, usage patterns, and
maintenance fees and have come up with a per-page (or per-foot,
per-meter, or per-whatever) cost. Now, how do you actually start
accounting for printouts?</para>
<para>Well, the bad news is the LPD spooling system does not provide
much help in this department. Accounting is highly dependent on
the kind of printer in use, the formats being printed, and
<emphasis>your</emphasis> requirements in charging for printer
usage.</para>
<para>To implement accounting, you have to modify a printer's text
filter (to charge for plain text jobs) and the conversion filters
(to charge for other file formats), to count pages or query the
printer for pages printed. You cannot get away with using the
simple output filter, since it cannot do accounting. See section
<xref
linkend="printing-advanced-filter-intro"
remap="Filters">.</para>
<para>Generally, there are two ways to do accounting:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Periodic accounting</emphasis> is the more
common way, possibly because it is easier. Whenever someone
prints a job, the filter logs the user, host, and number of
pages to an accounting file. Every month, semester, year,
or whatever time period you prefer, you collect the
accounting files for the various printers, tally up the
pages printed by users, and charge for usage. Then you
truncate all the logging files, starting with a clean slate
for the next period.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Timely accounting</emphasis> is less common,
probably because it is more difficult. This method has the
filters charge users for printouts as soon as they use the
printers. Like disk quotas, the accounting is immediate.
You can prevent users from printing when their account goes
in the red, and might provide a way for users to check and
adjust their <quote>print quotas.</quote> But this method requires some
database code to track users and their quotas.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>The LPD spooling system supports both methods easily: since
you have to provide the filters (well, most of the time), you also
have to provide the accounting code. But there is a bright side:
you have enormous flexibility in your accounting methods. For
example, you choose whether to use periodic or timely accounting.
You choose what information to log: user names, host names, job
types, pages printed, square footage of paper used, how long the
job took to print, and so forth. And you do so by modifying the
filters to save this information.</para>
<sect3>
<title>Quick and Dirty Printer Accounting</title>
<para> FreeBSD comes with two programs that can get you set up
with simple periodic accounting right away. They are the text
filter <command>lpf</command>, described in section
<xref linkend="printing-advanced-lpf" remap="lpf: a Text
Filter">, and</para>
<para><citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>pac</refentrytitle></citerefentry>, a
program to gather and total entries from printer accounting
files.</para>
<para>As mentioned in the section on filters (<xref
linkend="printing-advanced-filters" remap="Filters">), LPD
starts the text and the conversion filters with the name of the
accounting file to use on the filter command line. The filters
can use this argument to know where to write an accounting file
entry. The name of this file comes from the <emphasis
remap=tt>af</emphasis> capability in
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename>, and if not specified as an
absolute path, is relative to the spooling directory.</para>
<para>LPD starts <command>lpf</command> with page width
and length arguments (from the <emphasis remap=tt>pw</emphasis>
and <emphasis remap=tt>pl</emphasis> capabilities). <command>lpf</command> uses these arguments to determine how
much paper will be used. After sending the file to the printer,
it then writes an accounting entry in the accounting file. The
entries look like this:
<informalexample>
<screen> 2.00 rose:andy 3.00 rose:kelly 3.00 orchid:mary
5.00 orchid:mary 2.00 orchid:zhang</screen>
</informalexample> You should use a separate accounting file for
each printer, as <command>lpf</command> has no file
locking logic built into it, and two <command>lpf</command>s might corrupt each other's entries if
they were to write to the same file at the same time. A easy way
to insure a separate accounting file for each printer is to use
<literal>af=acct</literal> in
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename>. Then, each accounting file
will be in the spooling directory for a printer, in a file named
<emphasis remap=tt>acct</emphasis>.</para>
<para>When you are ready to charge users for printouts, run
the</para>
<para><citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>pac</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
program. Just change to the spooling directory for the printer
you want to collect on and type <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>pac</refentrytitle></citerefentry>. You
will get a dollar-centric summary like the following:
<informalexample>
<programlisting> Login pages/feet runs
price orchid:kelly 5.00 1 $ 0.10
orchid:mary 31.00 3 $ 0.62 orchid:zhang
9.00 1 $ 0.18 rose:andy 2.00 1
$ 0.04 rose:kelly 177.00 104 $ 3.54
rose:mary 87.00 32 $ 1.74 rose:root
26.00 12 $ 0.52 total 337.00 154
$ 6.74</programlisting>
</informalexample> These are the arguments <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>pac</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
expects:
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term><option>-P<replaceable>printer</replaceable></option></term>
<listitem>
<para>Which <emphasis remap=it>printer</emphasis> to
summarize. This option works only if there is an
absolute path in the <emphasis remap=tt>af</emphasis>
capability in <filename>/etc/printcap</filename>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><option>-c</option></term>
<listitem>
<para>Sort the output by cost instead of alphabetically by
user name.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><option>-m</option></term>
<listitem>
<para>Ignore host name in the accounting files. With this
option, user smith on host alpha is the same user smith
on host gamma. Without, they are different
users.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><option>-p<replaceable>price</replaceable></option></term>
<listitem>
<para>Compute charges with <emphasis
remap=it>price</emphasis> dollars per page or per foot
instead of the price from the <emphasis
remap=tt>pc</emphasis> capability in
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename>, or two cents (the
default). You can specify <emphasis
remap=it>price</emphasis> as a floating point
number.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><option>-r</option></term>
<listitem>
<para>Reverse the sort order.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><option>-s</option></term>
<listitem>
<para>Make an accounting summary file and truncate the
accounting file.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><emphasis
remap=tt><replaceable>names...</replaceable></emphasis></term>
<listitem>
<para>Print accounting information for the given user
<emphasis remap=it>names</emphasis> only.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>In the default summary that <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>pac</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
produces, you see the number of pages printed by each user from
various hosts. If, at your site, host does not matter (because
users can use any host), run <command>pac -m</command>, to
produce the following summary:
<informalexample>
<programlisting> Login pages/feet runs
price andy 2.00 1 $ 0.04 kelly
182.00 105 $ 3.64 mary 118.00 35
$ 2.36 root 26.00 12 $ 0.52
zhang 9.00 1 $ 0.18 total
337.00 154 $ 6.74</programlisting>
</informalexample> To compute the dollar amount due,
<citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>pac</refentrytitle></citerefentry> uses
the <emphasis remap=tt>pc</emphasis> capability in the
<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> file (default of 200, or 2
cents per page). Specify, in hundredths of cents, the price per
page or per foot you want to charge for printouts in this
capability. You can override this value when you run
<citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>pac</refentrytitle></citerefentry> with
the <option>-p</option> option. The units for the
<option>-p</option> option are in dollars, though, not
hundredths of cents. For example,
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; pac -p1.50</screen>
</informalexample> makes each page cost one dollar and fifty
cents. You can really rake in the profits by using this
option.</para>
<para>Finally, running <command>pac -s</command> will save the
summary information in a summary accounting file, which is named
the same as the printer's accounting file, but with
<symbol>_sum</symbol> appended to the name. It then truncates
the accounting file. When you run <citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>pac</refentrytitle></citerefentry>
again, it rereads the summary file to get starting totals, then
adds information from the regular accounting file.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>How Can You Count Pages Printed?</title>
<para> In order to perform even remotely accurate accounting, you
need to be able to determine how much paper a job uses. This is
the essential problem of printer accounting.</para>
<para>For plain text jobs, the problem's not that hard to solve:
you count how many lines are in a job and compare it to how many
lines per page your printer supports. Do not forget to take
into account backspaces in the file which overprint lines, or
long logical lines that wrap onto one or more additional
physical lines.</para>
<para>The text filter <command>lpf</command>
(introduced in <xref linkend="printing-advanced-lpf" remap="lpf:
a Text Filter">) takes into account these things when it does
accounting. If you are writing a text filter which needs to do
accounting, you might want to examine <command>lpf</command>'s source code.</para>
<para>How do you handle other file formats, though?</para>
<para>Well, for DVI-to-LaserJet or DVI-to-PostScript conversion,
you can have your filter parse the diagnostic output of</para>
<para><citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>dvilj</refentrytitle></citerefentry> or
<citerefentry>
<refentrytitle>dvips</refentrytitle></citerefentry> and look to see how many pages were converted. You might be able to do similar things with other file formats and conversion programs.</para>
<para>But these methods suffer from the fact that the printer may
not actually print all those pages. For example, it could jam,
run out of toner, or explode---and the user would still get
charged.</para>
<para>So, what can you do?</para>
<para>There is only one <emphasis>sure</emphasis> way to do
<emphasis>accurate</emphasis> accounting. Get a printer that
can tell you how much paper it uses, and attach it via a serial
line or a network connection. Nearly all PostScript printers
support this notion. Other makes and models do as well
(networked Imagen laser printers, for example). Modify the
filters for these printers to get the page usage after they
print each job and have them log accounting information based on
that value <emphasis>only</emphasis>. There is no line counting
nor error-prone file examination required.</para>
<para>Of course, you can always be generous and make all printouts
free.</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="printing-lpd-alternatives">
<title>Alternatives to the Standard Spooler</title>
<para> If you have been reading straight through this manual, by now
you have learned just about everything there is to know about the
LPD spooling system that comes with FreeBSD. You can probably
appreciate many of its shortcomings, which naturally leads to the
question: <quote>What other spooling systems are out there (and work with
FreeBSD)?</quote></para>
<para>Unfortunately, I have located only <emphasis>two</emphasis>
alternatives---and they are almost identical to each other! They
are:
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>PLP, the Portable Line Printer Spooler
System</term>
<listitem>
<para>PLP was based on software developed by Patrick Powell
and then maintained by an Internet-wide group of developers.
The main site for the software is at <ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.iona.ie/pub/plp">ftp://ftp.iona.ie/pub/plp</ulink>. There is also a <ulink URL="http://www.iona.ie:8000/www/hyplan/jmason/plp.html">web page</ulink>.</para>
<para>It is quite similar to the BSD LPD spooler, but boasts a
host of features, including:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Better network support, including built-in support
for networked printers, NIS-maintained printcaps, and
NFS-mounted spooling directories
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Sophisticated queue management, allowing multiple
printers on a queue, transfer of jobs between queues,
and queue redirection
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Remote printer control functions
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Prioritization of jobs
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Expansive security and access options</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>LPRng</term>
<listitem>
<para>LPRng, which purportedly means <quote>LPR: the Next
Generation</quote> is a complete rewrite of PLP. Patrick Powell
and Justin Mason (the principal maintainer of PLP)
collaborated to make LPRng. The main site for LPRng is
<ulink
URL="ftp://dickory.sdsu.edu/pub/LPRng">ftp://dickory.sdsu.edu/pub/LPRng</ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Acknowledgments</title>
<para> I would like to thank the following people who have assisted in
the development of this document:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>Daniel Eischen
<email>&lt;deischen@iworks.interworks.org&gt;</email></term>
<listitem>
<para>For providing a plethora of HP filter programs for
perusal.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>&a.jehamby;</term>
<listitem>
<para>For the Ghostscript-to-HP filter.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>My wife, Mary Kelly
<email>&lt;urquhart@argyre.colorado.edu&gt;</email></term>
<listitem>
<para>For allowing me to spend more time with FreeBSD than
with her.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para> </para>
</sect1>
</chapter>
<chapter
id="quotas">
<title>Disk Quotas</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.mpp;.<!-- <br> -->26 February
1996</emphasis></para>
<para>Quotas are an optional feature of the operating system that allow
you to limit the amount of disk space and/or the number of files a
user, or members of a group, may allocate on a per-file system basis.
This is used most often on timesharing systems where it is desirable
to limit the amount of resources any one user or group of users may
allocate. This will prevent one user from consuming all of the
available disk space.</para>
<sect1>
<title>Configuring Your System to Enable Disk Quotas</title>
<para>Before attempting to use disk quotas it is necessary to make
sure that quotas are configured in your kernel. This is done by
adding the following line to your kernel configuration file:
<literallayout>options QUOTA</literallayout> The
stock <filename>GENERIC</filename> kernel does not have this enabled
by default, so you will have to configure, build and install a
custom kernel in order to use disk quotas. Please refer to the
<xref linkend="kernelconfig" remap="Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel">
section for more information on kernel configuration.</para>
<para>Next you will need to enable disk quotas in
<filename>/etc/sysconfig</filename>. This is done by changing the
line: <literallayout>quotas=NO</literallayout> to:
<literallayout>quotas=YES</literallayout>
</para>
<para>If you are running FreeBSD 2.2.2 or later, the configuration
file will be <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> instead and the
variable name changed to
<literallayout>check_quotas=YES</literallayout>
</para>
<para>Finally you will need to edit <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> to
enable disk quotas on a per-file system basis. This is where you
can either enable user or group quotas or both for all of your file
systems.</para>
<para>To enable per-user quotas on a file system, add the <emphasis
remap=tt>userquota</emphasis> option to the options field in the
<filename>/etc/fstab</filename> entry for the file system you want
to to enable quotas on. For example: <literallayout>/dev/sd1s2g
/home ufs rw,userquota 1 2</literallayout>
</para>
<para>Similarly, to enable group quotas, use the <emphasis
remap=tt>groupquota</emphasis> option instead of the <emphasis
remap=tt>userquota</emphasis> keyword. To enable both user and
group quotas, change the entry as follows:
<literallayout>/dev/sd1s2g /home ufs rw,userquota,groupquota 1
2</literallayout>
</para>
<para>By default the quota files are stored in the root directory of
the file system with the names <filename>quota.user</filename> and
<filename>quota.group</filename> for user and group quotas
respectively. See <emphasis remap=tt>man fstab</emphasis> for more
information. Even though that man page says that you can specify an
alternate location for the quota files, this is not recommended
since all of the various quota utilities do not seem to handle this
properly.</para>
<para>At this point you should reboot your system with your new
kernel. <filename>/etc/rc</filename> will automatically run the
appropriate commands to create the initial quota files for all of
the quotas you enabled in <filename>/etc/fstab</filename>, so there
is no need to manually create any zero length quota files.</para>
<para>In the normal course of operations you should not be required to
run the <command>quotacheck</command>, <command>quotaon</command>, or <command>quotaoff</command> commands manually. However, you may
want to read their man pages just to be familiar with their
operation.</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Setting Quota Limits</title>
<para>Once you have configured your system to enable quotas, verify
that they really are enabled. An easy way to do this is to run
<command>quota -v</command>. You should see a one line summary of
disk usage and current quota limits for each file system that quotas
are enabled on.</para>
<para>You are now ready to start assigning quota limits with the
<command>edquota</command> command.</para>
<para>You have several options on how to enforce limits on the amount
of disk space a user or group may allocate, and how many files they
may create. You may limit allocations based on disk space (block
quotas) or number of files (inode quotas) or a combination of both.
Each of these limits are further broken down into two categories:
hard and soft limits. </para>
<para>A hard limit may not be exceeded. Once a user reaches their
hard limit they may not make any further allocations on the file
system in question. For example, if the user has a hard limit of
500 blocks on a file system and is currently using 490 blocks, the
user can only allocate an additional 10 blocks. Attempting to
allocate an additional 11 blocks will fail.</para>
<para>Soft limits on the other hand can be exceeded for a limited
amount of time. This period of time is known as the grace period,
which is one week by default. If a user stays over his or her soft
limit longer than their grace period, the soft limit will turn into
a hard limit and no further allocations will be allowed. When the
user drops back below the soft limit, the grace period will be
reset.</para>
<para>The following is an example of what you might see when you run
then <command>edquota</command> command. When the
<command>edquota</command> command is invoked, you are
placed into the editor specified by the <envar>EDITOR</envar>
environment variable, or in the <command>vi</command>
editor if the <envar>EDITOR</envar> variable is not set, to
allow you to edit the quota limits. <literallayout># edquota -u test
Quotas for user test: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 50,
hard = 75) inodes in use: 7, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60)
/usr/var: blocks in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75) inodes
in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60)</literallayout> You will
normally see two lines for each file system that has quotas enabled.
One line for the block limits, and one line for inode limits.
Simply change the value you want updated to modify the quota limit.
For example, to raise this users block limit from a soft limit of 50
and a hard limit of 75 to a soft limit of 500 and a hard limit of
600, change: <literallayout>/usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft =
50, hard = 75)</literallayout> to: <literallayout>/usr: blocks in
use: 65, limits (soft = 500, hard = 600)</literallayout> The new
quota limits will be in place when you exit the editor.</para>
<para>Sometimes it is desirable to set quota limits on a range of
uids. This can be done by use of the <option>-p</option> option on
the <command>edquota</command> command. First, assign
the desired quota limit to a user, and then run <command>edquota -p
protouser startuid-enduid</command>. For example, if user
<emphasis remap=tt>test</emphasis> has the desired quota limits, the
following command can be used to duplicate those quota limits for
uids 10,000 through 19,999: <literallayout>edquota -p test
10000-19999</literallayout>
</para>
<para>The ability to specify uid ranges was added to the system after
2.1 was released. If you need this feature on a 2.1 system, you
will need to obtain a newer copy of edquota.</para>
<para>See <emphasis remap=tt>man edquota</emphasis> for more detailed
information.</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Checking Quota Limits and Disk Usage</title>
<para>You can use either the <command>quota</command> or
the <command>repquota</command> commands to check quota
limits and disk usage. The <command>quota</command>
command can be used to check individual user and group quotas and
disk usage. Only the super-user may examine quotas and usage for
other users, or for groups that they are not a member of. The
<command>repquota</command> command can be used to get a
summary of all quotas and disk usage for file systems with quotas
enabled. </para>
<para>The following is some sample output from the <command>quota
-v</command> command for a user that has quota limits on two file
systems.</para>
<para>
<literallayout>Disk quotas for user test (uid 1002): Filesystem
blocks quota limit grace files quota limit grace
/usr 65* 50 75 5days 7 50 60
/usr/var 0 50 75 0 50 60
</literallayout> On the /usr file system in the above example this
user is currently 15 blocks over their soft limit of 50 blocks and
has 5 days of their grace period left. Note the asterisk (*) which
indicates that the user is currently over their quota limit.</para>
<para>Normally file systems that the user is not using any disk space
on will not show up in the output from the <command>quota</command> command, even if they have a quota limit
assigned for that file system. The <option>-v</option> option will
display those file systems, such as the
<filename>/usr/var</filename> file system in the above
example.</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>* Quotas over NFS</title>
<para>This section is still under development.</para>
</sect1>
</chapter>
<chapter>
<title>The X Window System</title>
<para>Pending the completion of this section, please refer to
documentation supplied by the <ulink URL="http://www.xfree86.org/">The
XFree86 Project, Inc</ulink>.</para>
</chapter>
<chapter
id="hw">
<title>PC Hardware compatibility</title>
<para>Issues of hardware compatibility are among the most troublesome in
the computer industry today and FreeBSD is by no means immune to
trouble. In this respect, FreeBSD's advantage of being able to run on
inexpensive commodity PC hardware is also its liability when it comes
to support for the amazing variety of components on the market. While
it would be impossible to provide a exhaustive listing of hardware
that FreeBSD supports, this section serves as a catalog of the device
drivers included with FreeBSD and the hardware each drivers supports.
Where possible and appropriate, notes about specific products are
included. You may also want to refer to <xref
linkend="kernelconfig-config"
remap="the kernel configuration file"> section in this handbook for
a list of supported devices.</para>
<para>As FreeBSD is a volunteer project without a funded testing
department, we depend on you, the user, for much of the information
contained in this catalog. If you have direct experience of hardware
that does or does not work with FreeBSD, please let us know by sending
e-mail to the &a.doc;. Questions about supported hardware should be
directed to the &a.questions; (see
<xref linkend="eresources-mail" remap="Mailing Lists"> for more
information). When submitting information or asking a question,
please remember to specify exactly what version of FreeBSD you are
using and include as many details of your hardware as possible.</para>
<sect1>
<title>Resources on the Internet</title>
<para>The following links have proven useful in selecting hardware.
Though some of what you see won't necessarily be specific (or even
applicable) to FreeBSD, most of the hardware information out there
is OS independent. Please check with the FreeBSD hardware guide to
make sure that your chosen configuration is supported before making
any purchases.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink URL="http://www.tomshardware.com/">The Pentium
Systems Hardware Performance Guide</ulink></para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="hw-configs">
<title>Sample Configurations</title>
<para>The following list of sample hardware configurations by no means
constitutes an endorsement of a given hardware vendor or product by
<emphasis>The FreeBSD Project</emphasis>. This information is
provided only as a public service and merely catalogs some of the
experiences that various individuals have had with different
hardware combinations. Your mileage may vary. Slippery when wet.
Beware of dog.</para>
<sect2
id="hw-jordans-picks">
<title>Jordan's Picks</title>
<para>I have had fairly good luck building workstation and server
configurations with the following components. I can't guarantee
that you will too, nor that any of the companies here will remain
<quote>best buys</quote> forever. I will try, when I can, to keep this list
up-to-date but cannot obviously guarantee that it will be at any
given time.</para>
<sect3
id="hw-mb">
<title>Motherboards</title>
<para>For Pentium Pro (P6) systems, I'm quite fond of the <ulink
URL="http://www.tyan.com/html/products.html">Tyan</ulink>
S1668 dual-processor motherboard. It makes a dandy little
single or dual processor system (which is supported in FreeBSD
3.0) and the price of the Pentium Pro 180/256K chip has fallen
to truly affordable levels. The Pentium Pro remains my favorite
processor solution server systems (Megahertz ratings aren't
everything).</para>
<para>For the Pentium II, I'm rather partial to the <ulink
URL="http://www.asus.com.tw">ASUS</ulink> <ulink
URL="http://www.asus.com.tw/Products/Motherboard/Pentiumpro/P2l97-s/index.html">P2l97-S</ulink> motherboard with the on-board Adaptec SCSI WIDE controller.</para>
<para>For Pentium machines, the ASUS <ulink
URL="http://www.asus.com.tw/Products/Motherboard/Pentium/P55tp4/index.html">P55T2P4</ulink> motherboard appears to be a good choice for mid-to-high range Pentium server and workstation systems. You might also wish to investigate ASUS's <ulink URL="http://asustek.asus.com.tw/FTP/ASUS/Info/Spec/pvi-486sp3.txt">486SP3G</ulink> offering if it's a 486-class motherboard you're looking for.</para>
<note>
<para>These have become increasingly hard to get as ASUS
apparently no longer manufactures them).</para>
</note>
<para>Those wishing to build more fault-tolerant systems should
also be sure to use Parity memory or, for truly 24/7
applications, ECC memory.</para>
<note>
<para>ECC memory does involve a slight performance trade-off
(which may or may not be noticeable depending on your
application) but buys you significantly increased
fault-tolerance to memory errors.</para>
</note>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Disk Controllers</title>
<para>This one is a bit trickier, and while I used to recommend
the <ulink URL="http://www.buslogic.com">Buslogic</ulink>
controllers unilaterally for everything from ISA to PCI, now I
tend to lean towards the <ulink
URL="http://www.adaptec.com">Adaptec</ulink> 1542CF for ISA,
Buslogic Bt747c for EISA and Adaptec 2940UW for PCI.</para>
<para>The NCR/Symbios cards for PCI have also worked well for me,
though you need to make sure that your motherboard supports the
BIOS-less model if you're using one of those (if your card has
nothing which looks even vaguely like a ROM chip on it, you've
probably got one which expects its BIOS to be on your
motherboard).</para>
<para>If you should find that you need more than one SCSI
controller in a PCI machine, you may wish to consider conserving
your scarce PCI bus resources by buying the Adaptec 3940 card,
which puts two SCSI controllers (and internal busses) in a
single slot.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="hw-disks">
<title>Disk drives</title>
<para>In this particular game of Russian roulette, I'll make few
specific recommendations except to say <quote>SCSI over IDE whenever
you can afford it.</quote> Even in small desktop configurations, SCSI
often makes more sense since it allows you to easily migrate
drives from server to desktop as falling drive prices make it
economical to do so. If you have more than one machine to
administer then think of it not simply as storage, think of it
as a food chain!</para>
<para>I do not currently see SCSI WIDE drives as a necessary
expense unless you're putting together an NFS or NEWS server
that will be doing a lot of multiuser disk I/O. </para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="hw-jordans-picks-cdrom">
<title>CDROM drives</title>
<para>My SCSI preferences extend to SCSI CDROM drives as well, and
while the <ulink URL="http://www.toshiba.com">Toshiba</ulink>
XM-3501B (also released in a caddy-less model called the
XM-5401B) drive has always performed well for me, I'm now a
great fan of the <ulink
URL="http://www.plextor.com">Plextor</ulink> PX-12CS drive.
It's a 12 speed drive with excellent performance and
reliability.</para>
<para>Generally speaking, most SCSI CDROM drives I've seen have
been of pretty solid construction and you probably won't go
wrong with an HP or NEC SCSI CDROM drive either. SCSI CDROM
prices also appear to have dropped considerably in the last few
months and are now quite competitive with IDE CDROMs while
remaining a technically superior solution. I now see no reason
whatsoever to settle for an IDE CDROM drive if given a choice
between the two.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="hw-worm">
<title>CD Recordable (WORM) drives</title>
<para>At the time of this writing, FreeBSD supports 3 types of CDR
drives (though I believe they all ultimately come from Phillips
anyway): The Phillips CDD 522 (Acts like a Plasmon), the PLASMON
RF4100 and the HP 6020i. I myself use the HP 6020i for burning
CDROMs (with 2.2-current - it does not work with 2.1.5 or
earlier releases of the SCSI code) and it works very well. See
<ulink
URL="file:/usr/share/examples/worm">/usr/share/examples/worm</ulink> on your 2.2 system for example scripts used to created ISO9660 filesystem images (with RockRidge extensions) and burn them onto an HP6020i CDR.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="hw-tape">
<title>Tape drives</title>
<para>I've had pretty good luck with both <ulink
URL="http://www.Exabyte.COM:80/Products/8mm/8505XL/Rfeatures.html">8mm drives</ulink> from <ulink URL="http://www.exabyte.com">Exabyte</ulink> and <ulink URL="http://www-dmo.external.hp.com:80/tape/_cpb0001.htm">4mm (DAT)</ulink> drives from <ulink URL="http://www.hp.com">HP</ulink>.</para>
<para>For backup purposes, I'd have to give the higher
recommendation to the Exabyte due to the more robust nature (and
higher storage capacity) of 8mm tape.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="hw-video">
<title>Video Cards</title>
<para>If you can also afford to buy a commercial X server for
US&#36;99 from <ulink URL="http://www.xig.com/">Xi Graphics,
Inc. (formerly X Inside, Inc)</ulink> then I can heartily
recommend the <ulink URL="http://www.matrox.com/">Matrox</ulink>
<ulink
URL="http://www.matrox.com/mgaweb/brochure.htm">Millenium</ulink> card. Note that support for this card is also excellent with the <ulink URL="http://www.xfree86.org/">XFree86</ulink> server, which is now at version 3.3.2.</para>
<para>You also certainly can't go wrong with one of <ulink
URL="http://www.nine.com/">Number 9's</ulink> cards - their S3
Vision 868 and 968 based cards (the 9FX series) also being quite
fast and very well supported by XFree86's S3 server.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="hw-monitors">
<title>Monitors</title>
<para>I have had very good luck with the <ulink
URL="http://cons3.sel.sony.com/SEL/ccpg/display/ms17se2.html">Sony Multiscan 17seII monitors</ulink>, as have I with the Viewsonic offering in the same (Trinitron) tube. For larger than 17", all I can recommend at the time of this writing is to not spend any less than U.S. &#36;2,500 for a 21" monitor or &#36;1,700 for a 20" monitor if that's what you really need. There are good monitors available in the &gt;=20" range and there are also cheap monitors in the &gt;=20" range. Unfortunately, very few are both cheap and good!</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="hw-networking">
<title>Networking</title>
<para>I can recommend the <ulink
URL="http://www.smc.com/">SMC</ulink> Ultra 16 controller for
any ISA application and the SMC EtherPower or Compex ENET32
cards for any serious PCI based networking. Both of the PCI
cards are based around DEC's DC21041 Ethernet controller chip
and other cards using it, such as the Zynx ZX342 or DEC DE435,
will generally work as well. For 100Mbit networking, either the
SMC SMC9332DST 10/100MB or Intel EtherExpress Pro/100B cards
will do a fine job, the Intel EtherExpress generally getting my
vote.</para>
<para>If what you're looking for is, on the other hand, the
cheapest possible solution which will still work reasonably
well, then almost any NE2000 clone is a good choice.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="hw-serial">
<title>Serial</title>
<para>If you're looking for high-speed serial networking
solutions, then <ulink URL="http://www.dgii.com/">Digi
International</ulink> makes the <ulink
URL="http://www.dgii.com/prodprofiles/profiles-prices/digiprofiles/digispecs/sync570.html">SYNC/570</ulink> series, with drivers now in FreeBSD-current. <ulink URL="http://www.etinc.com">Emerging Technologies</ulink> also manufactures a board with T1/E1 capabilities, using software they provide. I have no direct experience using either product, however.</para>
<para>Multiport card options are somewhat more numerous, though it
has to be said that FreeBSD's support for <ulink
URL="http://www.cyclades.com/">Cyclades</ulink>'s products is
probably the tightest, primarily as a result of that company's
commitment to making sure that we are adequately supplied with
evaluation boards and technical specs. I've heard that the
Cyclom-16Ye offers the best price/performance, though I've not
checked the prices lately. Other multiport cards I've heard good
things about are the BOCA and AST cards, and <ulink
URL="http://www.stallion.com/">Stallion
Technologies</ulink> apparently offers an unofficial driver
for their cards at <ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.stallion.com/drivers/unsupported/freebsd/stalbsd-0.0.4.tar.gz">this</ulink> location.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="hw-audio">
<title>Audio</title>
<para>I currently use a <ulink
URL="http://www.creaf.com/">Creative Labs</ulink> AWE32 though
just about anything from Creative Labs will generally work these
days. This is not to say that other types of sound cards don't
also work, simply that I have little experience with them (I was
a former GUS fan, but Gravis's soundcard situation has been dire
for some time).</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="hw-vgrabbers">
<title>Video</title>
<para>For video capture, there are two good choices - any card
based on the Brooktree BT848 chip, such as the Hauppage or WinTV
boards, will work very nicely with FreeBSD. Another board which
works for me is the <ulink
URL="http://www.matrox.com/">Matrox</ulink> <ulink
URL="http://www.matrox.com/imgweb/meteor.htm">Meteor</ulink>
card. FreeBSD also supports the older video spigot card from
Creative Labs, but those are getting somewhat difficult to find.
Note that the Meteor frame grabber card <emphasis>will not
work</emphasis> with motherboards based on the 440FX chipset!
See the
<xref linkend="hw-mb" remap="motherboard reference"> section for
details. In such cases, it's better to go with a BT848 based
board.</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="hw-core">
<title>Core/Processing</title>
<sect2>
<title>Motherboards, busses, and chipsets</title>
<sect3>
<title>* ISA</title>
<para></para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>* EISA</title>
<para></para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>* VLB</title>
<para></para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="hw-mb-pci">
<title>PCI</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.rgrimes;.<!-- <br> -->25 April
1995.</emphasis></para>
<para><emphasis>Continuing updates by &a.jkh;.</emphasis><!-- <br>
-->Last update on <emphasis>26 August 1996.</emphasis></para>
<para>Of the Intel PCI chip sets, the following list describes
various types of known-brokenness and the degree of breakage,
listed from worst to best.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>Mercury:</term>
<listitem>
<para>Cache coherency problems, especially if there are
ISA bus masters behind the ISA to PCI bridge chip.
Hardware flaw, only known work around is to turn the
cache off.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Saturn-I <emphasis>(ie, 82424ZX at rev 0,
1 or 2)</emphasis>:</term>
<listitem>
<para>Write back cache coherency problems. Hardware flaw,
only known work around is to set the external cache to
write-through mode. Upgrade to Saturn-II.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Saturn-II <emphasis>(ie, 82424ZX at rev 3
or 4)</emphasis>:</term>
<listitem>
<para>Works fine, but many MB manufactures leave out the
external dirty bit SRAM needed for write back operation.
Work arounds are either run it in write through mode, or
get the dirty bit SRAM installed. (I have these for the
ASUS PCI/I-486SP3G rev 1.6 and later boards).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Neptune:</term>
<listitem>
<para>Can not run more than 2 bus master devices.
Admitted Intel design flaw. Workarounds include do not
run more than 2 bus masters, special hardware design to
replace the PCI bus arbiter (appears on Intel Altair
board and several other Intel server group MB's). And
of course Intel's official answer, move to the Triton
chip set, we <quote>fixed it there</quote>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Triton <emphasis>(ie,
430FX)</emphasis>:</term>
<listitem>
<para>No known cache coherency or bus master problems,
chip set does not implement parity checking. Workaround
for parity issue. Use Triton-II based motherboards if
you have the choice.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Triton-II <emphasis>(ie,
430HX)</emphasis>:</term>
<listitem>
<para>All reports on motherboards using this chipset have
been favorable so far. No known problems.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Orion:</term>
<listitem>
<para>Early versions of this chipset suffered from a PCI
write-posting bug which can cause noticeable performance
degradation in applications where large amounts of PCI
bus traffic is involved. B0 stepping or later revisions
of the chipset fixed this problem.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><ulink
URL="http://developer.intel.com/design/pcisets/desktop.htm#440FX">440FX</ulink>:</term>
<listitem>
<para>This <ulink
URL="http://www.intel.com/procs/ppro/index.htm">Pentium Pro</ulink> support chipset seems to work well, and does not suffer from any of the early Orion chipset problems. It also supports a wider variety of memory, including ECC and parity. The only known problem with it is that the Matrox Meteor frame grabber card doesn't like it.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>CPUs/FPUs</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.asami;.<!-- <br> -->26 December
1997.</emphasis></para>
<sect3>
<title>P6 class (Pentium Pro/Pentium II)</title>
<para>Both the Pentium Pro and Pentium II work fine with FreeBSD.
In fact, our main ftp site <ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/">ftp.freebsd.org</ulink> (also
known as "<filename>ftp.cdrom.com</filename>", world's largest
ftp site) runs FreeBSD on a Pentium Pro. <ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.cdrom.com/archive-info/wcarchive.txt">Configurations details</ulink> are available for interested parties.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Pentium class</title>
<para>The Intel Pentium (P54C), Pentium MMX (P55C), AMD K6 and
Cyrix/IBM 6x86MX processors are all reported to work with
FreeBSD. I will not go into details of which processor is
faster than what, there are zillions of web sites on the
Internet that tells you one way or another. <emphasis
remap=tt>:)</emphasis></para>
<note>
<para>Various CPUs have different voltage/cooling requirements.
Make sure your motherboard can supply the exact voltage needed
by the CPU. For instance, many recent MMX chips require split
voltage (e.g., 2.9V core, 3.3V I/O). Also, some AMD and
Cyrix/IBM chips run hotter than Intel chips. In that case,
make sure you have good heatsink/fans (you can get the list of
certified parts from their web pages).</para>
</note>
<sect4>
<title>Clock speeds</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.rgrimes;.<!-- <br> -->1
October 1996.</emphasis></para>
<para><emphasis>Updated by &a.asami;.<!-- <br> -->27 December
1997.</emphasis></para>
<para>Pentium class machines use different clock speeds for the
various parts of the system. These being the speed of the
CPU, external memory bus, and the PCI bus. It is not always
true that a <quote>faster</quote> processor will make a system faster than
a <quote>slower</quote> one, due to the various clock speeds used. Below is
a table showing the differences:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> Rated External Clock External to PCI
Bus CPU and Memory Bus Internal Clock Clock MHz MHz**
Multiplier MHz 60 60 1.0
30 66 66 1.0 33 75 50
1.5 25 90 60 1.5 30
100 50* 2 25 100 66
1.5 33 120 60 2 30
133 66 2 33 150 60
2.5 30 (Intel, AMD) 150 75
2 37.5 (Cyrix/IBM 6x86MX) 166 66
2.5 33 180 60 3 30
200 66 3 33 233 66
3.5 33 * The Pentium 100 can be run at either
50MHz external clock with a multiplier of 2 or at 66MHz
and a multiplier of 1.5. ** 66 MHz may actually be 66.667
MHz, but don't assume so.
</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>As can be seen the best parts to be using are the 100,
133, 166, 200 and 233, with the exception that at a multiplier
of 3 or more the CPU starves for memory.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>The AMD K6 Bug</title>
<para>In 1997, there have been reports of the AMD K6 seg
faulting during heavy compilation. That problem has been
fixed in 3Q '97. According to reports, K6 chips with date mark
<quote>9733</quote> or larger (i.e., manufactured in the 33rd week of '97
or later) do not have this bug.</para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>* 486 class</title>
<para></para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>* 386 class</title>
<para></para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>286 class</title>
<para>Sorry, FreeBSD does not run on 80286 machines. It is nearly
impossible to run today's large full-featured UNIXes on such
hardware.</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>* Memory</title>
<para>The minimum amount of memory you must have to install FreeBSD
is 5 MB. Once your system is up and running you can <xref
linkend="kernelconfig-building" remap="build a custom kernel">
that will use less memory. If you use the boot4.flp you can get
away with having only 4 MB.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>* BIOS</title>
<para></para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="hw-io">
<title>Input/Output Devices</title>
<sect2>
<title>* Video cards</title>
<para></para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>* Sound cards</title>
<para></para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Serial ports and multiport cards</title>
<sect3
id="uart">
<title>The UART: What it is and how it works</title>
<para><emphasis>Copyright &copy; 1996 &a.uhclem;, All Rights
Reserved.<!-- <br> --> 13 January 1996.</emphasis></para>
<para>The Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART)
controller is the key component of the serial communications
subsystem of a computer. The UART takes bytes of data and
transmits the individual bits in a sequential fashion. At the
destination, a second UART re-assembles the bits into complete
bytes.</para>
<para>Serial transmission is commonly used with modems and for
non-networked communication between computers, terminals and
other devices.</para>
<para>There are two primary forms of serial transmission:
Synchronous and Asynchronous. Depending on the modes that are
supported by the hardware, the name of the communication
sub-system will usually include a <literal>A</literal> if it supports
Asynchronous communications, and a <literal>S</literal> if it supports
Synchronous communications. Both forms are described
below.</para>
<para>Some common acronyms are:
<blockquote>
<para>UART Universal Asynchronous
Receiver/Transmitter</para>
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
<para>USART Universal Synchronous-Asynchronous
Receiver/Transmitter</para>
</blockquote>
</para>
<sect4>
<title>Synchronous Serial Transmission</title>
<para>Synchronous serial transmission requires that the sender
and receiver share a clock with one another, or that the
sender provide a strobe or other timing signal so that the
receiver knows when to <quote>read</quote> the next bit of the data. In
most forms of serial Synchronous communication, if there is no
data available at a given instant to transmit, a fill
character must be sent instead so that data is always being
transmitted. Synchronous communication is usually more
efficient because only data bits are transmitted between
sender and receiver, and synchronous communication can be more
more costly if extra wiring and circuits are required to share
a clock signal between the sender and receiver.</para>
<para>A form of Synchronous transmission is used with printers
and fixed disk devices in that the data is sent on one set of
wires while a clock or strobe is sent on a different wire.
Printers and fixed disk devices are not normally serial
devices because most fixed disk interface standards send an
entire word of data for each clock or strobe signal by using a
separate wire for each bit of the word. In the PC industry,
these are known as Parallel devices.</para>
<para>The standard serial communications hardware in the PC does
not support Synchronous operations. This mode is described
here for comparison purposes only.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Asynchronous Serial Transmission</title>
<para>Asynchronous transmission allows data to be transmitted
without the sender having to send a clock signal to the
receiver. Instead, the sender and receiver must agree on
timing parameters in advance and special bits are added to
each word which are used to synchronize the sending and
receiving units.</para>
<para>When a word is given to the UART for Asynchronous
transmissions, a bit called the "Start Bit" is added to the
beginning of each word that is to be transmitted. The Start
Bit is used to alert the receiver that a word of data is about
to be sent, and to force the clock in the receiver into
synchronization with the clock in the transmitter. These two
clocks must be accurate enough to not have the frequency
drift by more than 10% during the transmission of the
remaining bits in the word. (This requirement was set in the
days of mechanical teleprinters and is easily met by modern
electronic equipment.)</para>
<para>After the Start Bit, the individual bits of the word of
data are sent, with the Least Significant Bit (LSB) being sent
first. Each bit in the transmission is transmitted for
exactly the same amount of time as all of the other bits, and
the receiver <quote>looks</quote> at the wire at approximately halfway
through the period assigned to each bit to determine if the
bit is a <literal>1</literal> or a <literal>0</literal>. For example, if it takes two seconds
to send each bit, the receiver will examine the signal to
determine if it is a <literal>1</literal> or a <literal>0</literal> after one second has passed,
then it will wait two seconds and then examine the value of
the next bit, and so on.</para>
<para>The sender does not know when the receiver has <quote>looked</quote> at
the value of the bit. The sender only knows when the clock
says to begin transmitting the next bit of the word.</para>
<para>When the entire data word has been sent, the transmitter
may add a Parity Bit that the transmitter generates. The
Parity Bit may be used by the receiver to perform simple error
checking. Then at least one Stop Bit is sent by the
transmitter. </para>
<para>When the receiver has received all of the bits in the data
word, it may check for the Parity Bits (both sender and
receiver must agree on whether a Parity Bit is to be used),
and then the receiver looks for a Stop Bit. If the Stop Bit
does not appear when it is supposed to, the UART considers the
entire word to be garbled and will report a Framing Error to
the host processor when the data word is read. The usual
cause of a Framing Error is that the sender and receiver
clocks were not running at the same speed, or that the signal
was interrupted.</para>
<para>Regardless of whether the data was received correctly or
not, the UART automatically discards the Start, Parity and
Stop bits. If the sender and receiver are configured
identically, these bits are not passed to the host.</para>
<para>If another word is ready for transmission, the Start Bit
for the new word can be sent as soon as the Stop Bit for the
previous word has been sent.</para>
<para>Because asynchronous data is <quote>self synchronizing</quote>, if
there is no data to transmit, the transmission line can be
idle.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Other UART Functions</title>
<para>In addition to the basic job of converting data from
parallel to serial for transmission and from serial to
parallel on reception, a UART will usually provide additional
circuits for signals that can be used to indicate the state of
the transmission media, and to regulate the flow of data in
the event that the remote device is not prepared to accept
more data. For example, when the device connected to the
UART is a modem, the modem may report the presence of a
carrier on the phone line while the computer may be able to
instruct the modem to reset itself or to not take calls by
asserting or deasserting one more more of these extra signals.
The function of each of these additional signals is defined in
the EIA RS232-C standard.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>The RS232-C and V.24 Standards</title>
<para>In most computer systems, the UART is connected to
circuitry that generates signals that comply with the EIA
RS232-C specification. There is also a CCITT standard named
V.24 that mirrors the specifications included in
RS232-C.</para>
<sect5>
<title>RS232-C Bit Assignments (Marks and Spaces)</title>
<para>In RS232-C, a value of <literal>1</literal> is called a <literal>Mark</literal> and a
value of <literal>0</literal> is called a <literal>Space</literal>. When a communication line
is idle, the line is said to be "Marking", or transmitting
continuous <literal>1</literal> values.</para>
<para>The Start bit always has a value of <literal>0</literal> (a Space). The
Stop Bit always has a value of <literal>1</literal> (a Mark). This means
that there will always be a Mark (1) to Space (0) transition
on the line at the start of every word, even when multiple
word are transmitted back to back. This guarantees that
sender and receiver can resynchronize their clocks
regardless of the content of the data bits that are being
transmitted.</para>
<para>The idle time between Stop and Start bits does not have
to be an exact multiple (including zero) of the bit rate of
the communication link, but most UARTs are designed this way
for simplicity.</para>
<para>In RS232-C, the "Marking" signal (a <literal>1</literal>) is represented
by a voltage between -2 VDC and -12 VDC, and a "Spacing"
signal (a <literal>0</literal>) is represented by a voltage between 0 and +12
VDC. The transmitter is supposed to send +12 VDC or -12
VDC, and the receiver is supposed to allow for some voltage
loss in long cables. Some transmitters in low power devices
(like portable computers) sometimes use only +5 VDC and -5
VDC, but these values are still acceptable to a RS232-C
receiver, provided that the cable lengths are short.</para>
</sect5>
<sect5>
<title>RS232-C Break Signal</title>
<para>RS232-C also specifies a signal called a <literal>Break</literal>, which
is caused by sending continuous Spacing values (no Start or
Stop bits). When there is no electricity present on the
data circuit, the line is considered to be sending <literal>Break</literal>.
</para>
<para>The <literal>Break</literal> signal must be of a duration longer than the
time it takes to send a complete byte plus Start, Stop and
Parity bits. Most UARTs can distinguish between a Framing
Error and a Break, but if the UART cannot do this, the
Framing Error detection can be used to identify
Breaks.</para>
<para>In the days of teleprinters, when numerous printers
around the country were wired in series (such as news
services), any unit could cause a <literal>Break</literal> by temporarily
opening the entire circuit so that no current flowed. This
was used to allow a location with urgent news to interrupt
some other location that was currently sending
information.</para>
<para>In modern systems there are two types of Break signals.
If the Break is longer than 1.6 seconds, it is considered a
"Modem Break", and some modems can be programmed to
terminate the conversation and go on-hook or enter the
modems' command mode when the modem detects this signal. If
the Break is smaller than 1.6 seconds, it signifies a Data
Break and it is up to the remote computer to respond to this
signal. Sometimes this form of Break is used as an
Attention or Interrupt signal and sometimes is accepted as a
substitute for the ASCII CONTROL-C character.</para>
<para>Marks and Spaces are also equivalent to <quote>Holes</quote> and <quote>No
Holes</quote> in paper tape systems.</para>
<note>
<para>Breaks cannot be generated from paper tape or from any
other byte value, since bytes are always sent with Start
and Stop bit. The UART is usually capable of generating
the continuous Spacing signal in response to a special
command from the host processor.</para>
</note>
</sect5>
<sect5>
<title>RS232-C DTE and DCE Devices</title>
<para>The RS232-C specification defines two types of
equipment: the Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and the Data
Carrier Equipment (DCE). Usually, the DTE device is the
terminal (or computer), and the DCE is a modem. Across the
phone line at the other end of a conversation, the receiving
modem is also a DCE device and the computer that is
connected to that modem is a DTE device. The DCE device
receives signals on the pins that the DTE device transmits
on, and vice versa.</para>
<para>When two devices that are both DTE or both DCE must be
connected together without a modem or a similar media
translater between them, a NULL modem must be used. The
NULL modem electrically re-arranges the cabling so that the
transmitter output is connected to the receiver input on the
other device, and vice versa. Similar translations are
performed on all of the control signals so that each device
will see what it thinks are DCE (or DTE) signals from the
other device.</para>
<para>The number of signals generated by the DTE and DCE
devices are not symmetrical. The DTE device generates fewer
signals for the DCE device than the DTE device receives from
the DCE.</para>
</sect5>
<sect5>
<title>RS232-C Pin Assignments</title>
<para>The EIA RS232-C specification (and the ITU equivalent,
V.24) calls for a twenty-five pin connector (usually a DB25)
and defines the purpose of most of the pins in that
connector. </para>
<para>In the IBM Personal Computer and similar systems, a
subset of RS232-C signals are provided via nine pin
connectors (DB9). The signals that are not included on the
PC connector deal mainly with synchronous operation, and
this transmission mode is not supported by the UART that IBM
selected for use in the IBM PC.</para>
<para>Depending on the computer manufacturer, a DB25, a DB9,
or both types of connector may be used for RS232-C
communications. (The IBM PC also uses a DB25 connector for
the parallel printer interface which causes some
confusion.)</para>
<para>Below is a table of the RS232-C signal assignments in
the DB25 and DB9 connectors.</para>
<para>
<literallayout>DB25 DB9 EIA CCITT Common Signal
Description RS232-C IBM PC Circuit Circuit Name Source
Pin Pin Symbol Symbol 1 - AA 101
PG/FG --- Frame/Protective Ground 2 3
BA 103 TD DTE Transmit Data 3 2 BB
104 RD DCE Receive Data 4 7 CA 105
RTS DTE Request to Send 5 8 CB 106
CTS DCE Clear to Send 6 6 CC 107 DSR
DCE Data Set Ready 7 5 AV 102 SG/GND
--- Signal Ground 8 1 CF 109 DCD/CD DCE
Data Carrier Detect 9 - - - -
- Reserved for Test 10 - - - -
- Reserved for Test 11 - - - -
- Unassigned 12 - CI 122 SRLSD DCE
Sec. Recv. Line Signal Detector 13 - SCB 121
SCTS DCE Secondary Clear To Send 14 -
SBA 118 STD DTE Secondary Transmit Data 15
- DB 114 TSET DCE Trans. Sig. Element
Timing 16 - SBB 119 SRD DCE
Secondary Received Data 17 - DD 115 RSET
DCE Receiver Signal Element Timing 18 - -
141 LOOP DTE Local Loopback 19 - SCA
120 SRS DTE Secondary Request to Send 20 4
CD 108.2 DTR DTE Data Terminal Ready 21 -
- - RDL DTE Remote Digital Loopback 22
9 CE 125 RI DCE Ring Indicator 23
- CH 111 DSRS DTE Data Signal Rate
Selector 24 - DA 113 TSET DTE Trans.
Sig. Element Timing 25 - - 142 -
DCE Test Mode</literallayout>
</para>
</sect5>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Bits, Baud and Symbols</title>
<para>Baud is a measurement of transmission speed in
asynchronous communication. Because of advances in modem
communication technology, this term is frequently misused when
describing the data rates in newer devices.</para>
<para>Traditionally, a Baud Rate represents the number of bits
that are actually being sent over the media, not the amount of
data that is actually moved from one DTE device to the other.
The Baud count includes the overhead bits Start, Stop and
Parity that are generated by the sending UART and removed by
the receiving UART. This means that seven-bit words of data
actually take 10 bits to be completely transmitted. Therefore,
a modem capable of moving 300 bits per second from one place
to another can normally only move 30 7-bit words if Parity is
used and one Start and Stop bit are present. </para>
<para>If 8-bit data words are used and Parity bits are also
used, the data rate falls to 27.27 words per second, because
it now takes 11 bits to send the eight-bit words, and the
modem still only sends 300 bits per second.</para>
<para>The formula for converting bytes per second into a baud
rate and vice versa was simple until error-correcting modems
came along. These modems receive the serial stream of bits
from the UART in the host computer (even when internal modems
are used the data is still frequently serialized) and converts
the bits back into bytes. These bytes are then combined into
packets and sent over the phone line using a Synchronous
transmission method. This means that the Stop, Start, and
Parity bits added by the UART in the DTE (the computer) were
removed by the modem before transmission by the sending modem.
When these bytes are received by the remote modem, the remote
modem adds Start, Stop and Parity bits to the words, converts
them to a serial format and then sends them to the receiving
UART in the remote computer, who then strips the Start, Stop
and Parity bits.</para>
<para>The reason all these extra conversions are done is so that
the two modems can perform error correction, which means that
the receiving modem is able to ask the sending modem to resend
a block of data that was not received with the correct
checksum. This checking is handled by the modems, and the DTE
devices are usually unaware that the process is
occurring.</para>
<para>By striping the Start, Stop and Parity bits, the
additional bits of data that the two modems must share between
themselves to perform error-correction are mostly concealed
from the effective transmission rate seen by the sending and
receiving DTE equipment. For example, if a modem sends ten
7-bit words to another modem without including the Start, Stop
and Parity bits, the sending modem will be able to add 30 bits
of its own information that the receiving modem can use to do
error-correction without impacting the transmission speed of
the real data.</para>
<para>The use of the term Baud is further confused by modems
that perform compression. A single 8-bit word passed over the
telephone line might represent a dozen words that were
transmitted to the sending modem. The receiving modem will
expand the data back to its original content and pass that
data to the receiving DTE.</para>
<para>Modern modems also include buffers that allow the rate
that bits move across the phone line (DCE to DCE) to be a
different speed than the speed that the bits move between the
DTE and DCE on both ends of the conversation. Normally the
speed between the DTE and DCE is higher than the DCE to DCE
speed because of the use of compression by the modems.</para>
<para>Because the number of bits needed to describe a byte
varied during the trip between the two machines plus the
differing bits-per-seconds speeds that are used present on
the DTE-DCE and DCE-DCE links, the usage of the term Baud to
describe the overall communication speed causes problems and
can misrepresent the true transmission speed. So Bits Per
Second (bps) is the correct term to use to describe the
transmission rate seen at the DCE to DCE interface and Baud or
Bits Per Second are acceptable terms to use when a connection
is made between two systems with a wired connection, or if a
modem is in use that is not performing error-correction or
compression.</para>
<para>Modern high speed modems (2400, 9600, 14,400, and
19,200bps) in reality still operate at or below 2400 baud, or
more accurately, 2400 Symbols per second. High speed modem
are able to encode more bits of data into each Symbol using a
technique called Constellation Stuffing, which is why the
effective bits per second rate of the modem is higher, but the
modem continues to operate within the limited audio bandwidth
that the telephone system provides. Modems operating at 28,800
and higher speeds have variable Symbol rates, but the
technique is the same.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>The IBM Personal Computer UART</title>
<para>Starting with the original IBM Personal Computer, IBM
selected the National Semiconductor INS8250 UART for use in
the IBM PC Parallel/Serial Adapter. Subsequent generations of
compatible computers from IBM and other vendors continued to
use the INS8250 or improved versions of the National
Semiconductor UART family.</para>
<sect5>
<title>National Semiconductor UART Family Tree</title>
<para>There have been several versions and subsequent
generations of the INS8250 UART. Each major version is
described below.</para>
<para>
<literallayout> INS8250 -&gt; INS8250B \ \ \-&gt;
INS8250A -&gt; INS82C50A \ \ \-&gt; NS16450 -&gt;
NS16C450 \ \ \-&gt; NS16550 -&gt; NS16550A -&gt;
PC16550D</literallayout>
</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>INS8250</term>
<listitem>
<para>This part was used in the original IBM PC and
IBM PC/XT. The original name for this part was the
INS8250 ACE (Asynchronous Communications Element)
and it is made from NMOS technology.</para>
<para>The 8250 uses eight I/O ports and has a one-byte
send and a one-byte receive buffer. This original
UART has several race conditions and other flaws.
The original IBM BIOS includes code to work around
these flaws, but this made the BIOS dependent on the
flaws being present, so subsequent parts like the
8250A, 16450 or 16550 could not be used in the
original IBM PC or IBM PC/XT.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>INS8250-B</term>
<listitem>
<para>This is the slower speed of the INS8250 made
from NMOS technology. It contains the same problems
as the original INS8250.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>INS8250A</term>
<listitem>
<para>An improved version of the INS8250 using XMOS
technology with various functional flaws corrected.
The INS8250A was used initially in PC clone
computers by vendors who used <quote>clean</quote> BIOS designs.
Because of the corrections in the chip, this part
could not be used with a BIOS compatible with the
INS8250 or INS8250B.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>INS82C50A</term>
<listitem>
<para>This is a CMOS version (low power consumption)
of the INS8250A and has similar functional
characteristics.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>NS16450</term>
<listitem>
<para>Same as NS8250A with improvements so it can be
used with faster CPU bus designs. IBM used this
part in the IBM AT and updated the IBM BIOS to no
longer rely on the bugs in the INS8250.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>NS16C450</term>
<listitem>
<para>This is a CMOS version (low power consumption)
of the NS16450.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>NS16550</term>
<listitem>
<para>Same as NS16450 with a 16-byte send and receive
buffer but the buffer design was flawed and could
not be reliably be used.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>NS16550A</term>
<listitem>
<para>Same as NS16550 with the buffer flaws corrected.
The 16550A and its successors have become the most
popular UART design in the PC industry, mainly due
it its ability to reliably handle higher data rates
on operating systems with sluggish interrupt
response times.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>NS16C552</term>
<listitem>
<para>This component consists of two NS16C550A CMOS
UARTs in a single package. </para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>PC16550D</term>
<listitem>
<para>Same as NS16550A with subtle flaws corrected.
This is revision D of the 16550 family and is the
latest design available from National Semiconductor.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect5>
<sect5>
<title>The NS16550AF and the PC16550D are the same
thing</title>
<para>National reorganized their part numbering system a few
years ago, and the NS16550AFN no longer exists by that name.
(If you have a NS16550AFN, look at the date code on the
part, which is a four digit number that usually starts with
a nine. The first two digits of the number are the year,
and the last two digits are the week in that year when the
part was packaged. If you have a NS16550AFN, it is probably
a few years old.) </para>
<para>The new numbers are like PC16550DV, with minor
differences in the suffix letters depending on the package
material and its shape. (A description of the numbering
system can be found below.) </para>
<para>It is important to understand that in some stores, you
may pay &#36;15(US) for a NS16550AFN made in 1990 and in the
next bin are the new PC16550DN parts with minor fixes that
National has made since the AFN part was in production, the
PC16550DN was probably made in the past six months and it
costs half (as low as &#36;5(US) in volume) as much as the
NS16550AFN because they are readily available.</para>
<para>As the supply of NS16550AFN chips continues to shrink,
the price will probably continue to increase until more
people discover and accept that the PC16550DN really has the
same function as the old part number.</para>
</sect5>
<sect5>
<title>National Semiconductor Part Numbering System</title>
<para>The older NS<emphasis>nnnnnrqp</emphasis> part numbers
are now of the format
PC<emphasis>nnnnnrgp</emphasis>.</para>
<para>The <emphasis>r</emphasis> is the revision field. The
current revision of the 16550 from National Semiconductor is
<literal>D</literal>. </para>
<para>The <emphasis>p</emphasis> is the package-type field.
The types are: <literallayout> "F" QFP (quad
flat pack) L lead type "N" DIP (dual inline package)
through hole straight lead type "V" LPCC (lead plastic
chip carrier) J lead type</literallayout>
</para>
<para>The "<emphasis>g</emphasis>" is the product grade field.
If an <literal>I</literal> precedes the package-type letter, it indicates an
<quote>industrial</quote> grade part, which has higher specs than a
standard part but not as high as Military Specification
(Milspec) component. This is an optional field.</para>
<para>So what we used to call a NS16550AFN (DIP Package) is
now called a PC16550DN or PC16550DIN.</para>
</sect5>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Other Vendors and Similar UARTs</title>
<para>Over the years, the 8250, 8250A, 16450 and 16550 have been
licensed or copied by other chip vendors. In the case of the
8250, 8250A and 16450, the exact circuit (the <quote>megacell</quote>) was
licensed to many vendors, including Western Digital and Intel.
Other vendors reverse-engineered the part or produced
emulations that had similar behavior. </para>
<para>In internal modems, the modem designer will frequently
emulate the 8250A/16450 with the modem microprocessor, and the
emulated UART will frequently have a hidden buffer consisting
of several hundred bytes. Because of the size of the buffer,
these emulations can be as reliable as a 16550A in their
ability to handle high speed data. However, most operating
systems will still report that the UART is only a 8250A or
16450, and may not make effective use of the extra buffering
present in the emulated UART unless special drivers are
used.</para>
<para>Some modem makers are driven by market forces to abandon a
design that has hundreds of bytes of buffer and instead use a
16550A UART so that the product will compare favorably in
market comparisons even though the effective performance may
be lowered by this action.</para>
<para>A common misconception is that all parts with <QUOTE>16550A</QUOTE>
written on them are identical in performance. There are
differences, and in some cases, outright flaws in most of
these 16550A clones.</para>
<para>When the NS16550 was developed, the National Semiconductor
obtained several patents on the design and they also limited
licensing, making it harder for other vendors to provide a
chip with similar features. Because of the patents,
reverse-engineered designs and emulations had to avoid
infringing the claims covered by the patents. Subsequently,
these copies almost never perform exactly the same as the
NS16550A or PC16550D, which are the parts most computer and
modem makers want to buy but are sometimes unwilling to pay
the price required to get the genuine part. </para>
<para>Some of the differences in the clone 16550A parts are
unimportant, while others can prevent the device from being
used at all with a given operating system or driver. These
differences may show up when using other drivers, or when
particular combinations of events occur that were not well
tested or considered in the Windows driver. This is because
most modem vendors and 16550-clone makers use the Microsoft
drivers from Windows for Workgroups 3.11 and the Microsoft MSD
utility as the primary tests for compatibility with the
NS16550A. This over-simplistic criteria means that if a
different operating system is used, problems could appear due
to subtle differences between the clones and genuine
components.</para>
<para>National Semiconductor has made available a program named
COMTEST that performs compatibility tests independent of any
OS drivers. It should be remembered that the purpose of this
type of program is to demonstrate the flaws in the products of
the competition, so the program will report major as well as
extremely subtle differences in behavior in the part being
tested.</para>
<para>In a series of tests performed by the author of this
document in 1994, components made by National Semiconductor,
TI, StarTech, and CMD as well as megacells and emulations
embedded in internal modems were tested with COMTEST. A
difference count for some of these components is listed below.
Because these tests were performed in 1994, they may not
reflect the current performance of the given product from a
vendor.</para>
<para>It should be noted that COMTEST normally aborts when an
excessive number or certain types of problems have been
detected. As part of this testing, COMTEST was modified so
that it would not abort no matter how many differences were
encountered.</para>
<para>
<literallayout>Vendor Part number Errors
aka "differences" reported National (PC16550DV)
0 * National (NS16550AFN) 0 National
(NS16C552V) 0 * TI (TL16550AFN)
3 CMD (16C550PE) 19 StarTech
(ST16C550J) 23 Rockwell reference
modem with internal 16550 or an emulation
(RC144DPi/C3000-25) 117 Sierra modem with an
internal 16550 (SC11951/SC11351)
91</literallayout>
</para>
<para>It is important to understand that a simple count of
differences from COMTEST does not reveal a lot about what
differences are important and which are not. For example,
about half of the differences reported in the two modems
listed above that have internal UARTs were caused by the clone
UARTs not supporting five- and six-bit character modes. The
real 16550, 16450, and 8250 UARTs all support these modes and
COMTEST checks the functionality of these modes so over fifty
differences are reported. However, almost no modern modem
supports five- or six-bit characters, particularly those with
error-correction and compression capabilities. This means
that the differences related to five- and six-bit character
modes can be discounted.</para>
<para>Many of the differences COMTEST reports have to do with
timing. In many of the clone designs, when the host reads
from one port, the status bits in some other port may not
update in the same amount of time (some faster, some slower)
as a <emphasis>real</emphasis> NS16550AFN and COMTEST looks
for these differences. This means that the number of
differences can be misleading in that one device may only have
one or two differences but they are extremely serious, and
some other device that updates the status registers faster or
slower than the reference part (that would probably never
affect the operation of a properly written driver) could have
dozens of differences reported.</para>
<para>* To date, the author of this document has not found any
non-National parts that report zero differences using the
COMTEST program. It should also be noted that National has
had five versions of the 16550 over the years and the newest
parts behave a bit differently than the classic NS16550AFN
that is considered the benchmark for functionality. COMTEST
appears to turn a blind eye to the differences within the
National product line and reports no errors on the National
parts (except for the original 16550) even when there are
official erratas that describe bugs in the A, B and C
revisions of the parts, so this bias in COMTEST must be taken
into account.</para>
<para>COMTEST can be used as a screening tool to alert the
administrator to the presence of potentially incompatible
components that might cause problems or have to be handled as
a special case.</para>
<para>If you run COMTEST on a 16550 that is in a modem or a
modem is attached to the serial port, you need to first issue
a ATE0&amp;W command to the modem so that the modem will not
echo any of the test characters. If you forget to do this,
COMTEST will report at least this one difference:
<blockquote>
<para>Error (6)...Timeout interrupt failed: IIR = c1 LSR =
61</para>
</blockquote>
</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>8250/16450/16550 Registers</title>
<para>The 8250/16450/16550 UART occupies eight contiguous I/O
port addresses. In the IBM PC, there are two defined
locations for these eight ports and they are known
collectively as COM1 and COM2. The makers of PC-clones and
add-on cards have created two additional areas known as COM3
and COM4, but these extra COM ports conflict with other
hardware on some systems. The most common conflict is with
video adapters that provide IBM 8514 emulation.</para>
<para>
<literallayout>COM1 is located from 0x3f8 to 0x3ff and
normally uses IRQ 4 COM2 is located from 0x2f8 to 0x2ff and
normally uses IRQ 3 COM3 is located from 0x3e8 to 0x3ef and
has no standardized IRQ COM4 is located from 0x2e8 to 0x2ef
and has no standardized IRQ</literallayout>
</para>
<para>A description of the I/O ports of the 8250/16450/16550
UART is provided below.</para>
<para>
<literallayout>I/O Access Description Port
Allowed +0x00 write Transmit Holding Register
(THR) (DLAB==0) Information written to this port are
treated as data words and will be transmitted by the UART.
+0x00 read Receive Buffer Register (RBR)
(DLAB==0) Any data words received by the UART from the
serial link are accessed by the host by reading this port.
+0x00 write/read Divisor Latch LSB (DLL) (DLAB==1)
This value will be divided from the master input clock (in
the IBM PC, the master clock is 1.8432MHz) and the resulting
clock will determine the baud rate of the UART. This
register holds bits 0 thru 7 of the divisor. +0x01
write/read Divisor Latch MSB (DLH) (DLAB==1) This
value will be divided from the master input clock (in the
IBM PC, the master clock is 1.8432MHz) and the resulting
clock will determine the baud rate of the UART. This
register holds bits 8 thru 15 of the divisor. +0x01
write/read Interrupt Enable Register (IER) (DLAB==0)
The 8250/16450/16550 UART classifies events into one of four
categories. Each category can be configured to generate an
interrupt when any of the events occurs. The
8250/16450/16550 UART generates a single external interrupt
signal regardless of how many events in the enabled
categories have occurred. It is up to the host processor to
respond to the interrupt and then poll the enabled interrupt
categories (usually all categories have interrupts enabled)
to determine the true cause(s) of the interrupt. Bit 7
Reserved, always 0. Bit 6 Reserved, always 0. Bit 5
Reserved, always 0. Bit 4 Reserved, always 0. Bit 3
Enable Modem Status Interrupt (EDSSI) Setting this bit to
"1" allows the UART to generate an interrupt when a change
occurs on one or more of the status lines. Bit 2 Enable
Receiver Line Status Interrupt (ELSI) Setting this bit to
"1" causes the UART to generate an interrupt when the an
error (or a BREAK signal) has been detected in the incoming
data. Bit 1 Enable Transmitter Holding Register Empty
Interrupt (ETBEI) Setting this bit to "1" causes the UART to
generate an interrupt when the UART has room for one or more
additional characters that are to be transmitted. Bit 0
Enable Received Data Available Interrupt (ERBFI) Setting
this bit to "1" causes the UART to generate an interrupt
when the UART has received enough characters to exceed the
trigger level of the FIFO, or the FIFO timer has expired
(stale data), or a single character has been received when
the FIFO is disabled. +0x02 write FIFO Control
Register (FCR) (This port does not exist on the 8250 and
16450 UART.) Bit 7 Receiver Trigger Bit #1 Bit 6
Receiver Trigger Bit #0 These two bits control at what point
the receiver is to generate an interrupt when the FIFO is
active. 7 6 How many words are received before an
interrupt is generated. 0 0 1 0 1 4 1 0 8 1 1 14 Bit
5 Reserved, always 0. Bit 4 Reserved, always 0.
Bit 3 DMA Mode Select If Bit 0 is set to "1" (FIFOs
enabled), setting this bit changes the operation of the
-RXRDY and -TXRDY signals from Mode 0 to Mode 1. Bit 2
Transmit FIFO Reset When a "1" is written to this bit, the
contents of the FIFO are discarded. Any word currently being
transmitted will be sent intact. This function is useful in
aborting transfers. Bit 1 Receiver FIFO Reset When a "1"
is written to this bit, the contents of the FIFO are
discarded. Any word currently being assembled in the shift
register will be received intact. Bit 0 16550 FIFO
Enable When set, both the transmit and receive FIFOs are
enabled. Any contents in the holding register, shift
registers or FIFOs are lost when FIFOs are enabled or
disabled. +0x02 read Interrupt
Identification Register (IIR) Bit 7 FIFOs enabled. On the
8250/16450 UART, this bit is zero. Bit 6 FIFOs enabled.
On the 8250/16450 UART, this bit is zero. Bit 5
Reserved, always 0. Bit 4 Reserved, always 0. Bit 3
Interrupt ID Bit #2 On the 8250/16450 UART, this bit is
zero. Bit 2 Interrupt ID Bit #1 Bit 1 Interrupt ID
Bit #0 These three bits combine to report the category of
event that caused the interrupt that is in progress. These
categories have priorities, so if multiple categories of
events occur at the same time, the UART will report the more
important events first and the host must resolve the events
in the order they are reported. All events that caused the
current interrupt must be resolved before any new interrupts
will be generated. (This is a limitation of the PC
architecture.) 2 1 0 Priority Description 0 1 1
First Receiver Error (OE, PE, BI or FE) 0 1 0 Second
Received Data Available 1 1 0 Second Trigger level
identification (Stale data in receive buffer) 0 0 1 Third
Transmitter has room for more words (THRE) 0 0 0 Fourth
Modem Status Change (-CTS, -DSR, -RI, or -DCD) Bit 0
Interrupt Pending Bit If this bit is set to "0", then at
least one interrupt is pending. +0x03 write/read Line
Control Register (LCR) Bit 7 Divisor Latch Access Bit
(DLAB) When set, access to the data transmit/receive
register (THR/RBR) and the Interrupt Enable Register (IER)
is disabled. Any access to these ports is now redirected to
the Divisor Latch Registers. Setting this bit, loading the
Divisor Registers, and clearing DLAB should be done with
interrupts disabled. Bit 6 Set Break When set to "1", the
transmitter begins to transmit continuous Spacing until this
bit is set to "0". This overrides any bits of characters
that are being transmitted. Bit 5 Stick Parity When
parity is enabled, setting this bit causes parity to always
be "1" or "0", based on the value of Bit 4. Bit 4 Even
Parity Select (EPS) When parity is enabled and Bit 5 is "0",
setting this bit causes even parity to be transmitted and
expected. Otherwise, odd parity is used. Bit 3 Parity
Enable (PEN) When set to "1", a parity bit is inserted
between the last bit of the data and the Stop Bit. The UART
will also expect parity to be present in the received data.
Bit 2 Number of Stop Bits (STB) If set to "1" and using
5-bit data words, 1.5 Stop Bits are transmitted and
expected in each data word. For 6, 7 and 8-bit data words,
2 Stop Bits are transmitted and expected. When this bit is
set to "0", one Stop Bit is used on each data word. Bit 1
Word Length Select Bit #1 (WLSB1) Bit 0 Word Length
Select Bit #0 (WLSB0) Together these bits specify the number
of bits in each data word. 1 0 Word Length 0 0 5 Data
Bits 0 1 6 Data Bits 1 0 7 Data Bits 1 1 8 Data Bits
+0x04 write/read Modem Control Register (MCR) Bit 7
Reserved, always 0. Bit 6 Reserved, always 0. Bit 5
Reserved, always 0. Bit 4 Loop-Back Enable When set to
"1", the UART transmitter and receiver are internally
connected together to allow diagnostic operations. In
addition, the UART modem control outputs are connected to
the UART modem control inputs. CTS is connected to RTS,
DTR is connected to DSR, OUT1 is connected to RI, and OUT 2
is connected to DCD. Bit 3 OUT 2 An auxiliary output that
the host processor may set high or low. In the IBM PC serial
adapter (and most clones), OUT 2 is used to tri-state
(disable) the interrupt signal from the 8250/16450/16550
UART. Bit 2 OUT 1 An auxiliary output that the host
processor may set high or low. This output is not used on
the IBM PC serial adapter. Bit 1 Request to Send (RTS)
When set to "1", the output of the UART -RTS line is Low
(Active). Bit 0 Data Terminal Ready (DTR) When set to
"1", the output of the UART -DTR line is Low (Active). +0x05
write/read Line Status Register (LSR) Bit 7 Error
in Receiver FIFO On the 8250/16450 UART, this bit is zero.
This bit is set to "1" when any of the bytes in the FIFO
have one or more of the following error conditions: PE, FE,
or BI. Bit 6 Transmitter Empty (TEMT) When set to "1",
there are no words remaining in the transmit FIFO or the
transmit shift register. The transmitter is completely
idle. Bit 5 Transmitter Holding Register Empty (THRE) When
set to "1", the FIFO (or holding register) now has room for
at least one additional word to transmit. The transmitter
may still be transmitting when this bit is set to "1". Bit 4
Break Interrupt (BI) The receiver has detected a Break
signal. Bit 3 Framing Error (FE) A Start Bit was detected
but the Stop Bit did not appear at the expected time. The
received word is probably garbled. Bit 2 Parity Error
(PE) The parity bit was incorrect for the word received. Bit
1 Overrun Error (OE) A new word was received and there
was no room in the receive buffer. The newly-arrived word
in the shift register is discarded. On 8250/16450 UARTs,
the word in the holding register is discarded and the newly-
arrived word is put in the holding register. Bit 0 Data
Ready (DR) One or more words are in the receive FIFO that
the host may read. A word must be completely received and
moved from the shift register into the FIFO (or holding
register for 8250/16450 designs) before this bit is set.
+0x06 write/read Modem Status Register (MSR) Bit 7
Data Carrier Detect (DCD) Reflects the state of the DCD line
on the UART. Bit 6 Ring Indicator (RI) Reflects the state
of the RI line on the UART. Bit 5 Data Set Ready (DSR)
Reflects the state of the DSR line on the UART. Bit 4 Clear
To Send (CTS) Reflects the state of the CTS line on the
UART. Bit 3 Delta Data Carrier Detect (DDCD) Set to "1" if
the -DCD line has changed state one more more times since
the last time the MSR was read by the host. Bit 2
Trailing Edge Ring Indicator (TERI) Set to "1" if the -RI
line has had a low to high transition since the last time
the MSR was read by the host. Bit 1 Delta Data Set Ready
(DDSR) Set to "1" if the -DSR line has changed state one
more more times since the last time the MSR was read by the
host. Bit 0 Delta Clear To Send (DCTS) Set to "1" if the
-CTS line has changed state one more more times since the
last time the MSR was read by the host. +0x07 write/read
Scratch Register (SCR) This register performs no function in
the UART. Any value can be written by the host to this
location and read by the host later on.</literallayout>
</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Beyond the 16550A UART</title>
<para>Although National Semiconductor has not offered any
components compatible with the 16550 that provide additional
features, various other vendors have. Some of these
components are described below. It should be understood that
to effectively utilize these improvements, drivers may have to
be provided by the chip vendor since most of the popular
operating systems do not support features beyond those
provided by the 16550.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>ST16650</term>
<listitem>
<para>By default this part is similar to the NS16550A,
but an extended 32-byte send and receive buffer can be
optionally enabled. Made by Startech. </para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>TIL16660</term>
<listitem>
<para>By default this part behaves similar to the
NS16550A, but an extended 64-byte send and receive
buffer can be optionally enabled. Made by Texas
Instruments. </para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Hayes ESP</term>
<listitem>
<para>This proprietary plug-in card contains a 2048-byte
send and receive buffer, and supports data rates to
230.4Kbit/sec. Made by Hayes.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>In addition to these <quote>dumb</quote> UARTs, many vendors produce
intelligent serial communication boards. This type of design
usually provides a microprocessor that interfaces with several
UARTs, processes and buffers the data, and then alerts the
main PC processor when necessary. Because the UARTs are not
directly accessed by the PC processor in this type of
communication system, it is not necessary for the vendor to
use UARTs that are compatible with the 8250, 16450, or the
16550 UART. This leaves the designer free to components that
may have better performance characteristics. </para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="sio">
<title>Configuring the <emphasis remap=tt>sio</emphasis>
driver</title>
<para>The <emphasis remap=tt>sio</emphasis> driver provides
support for NS8250-, NS16450-, NS16550 and NS16550A-based EIA
RS-232C (CCITT V.24) communications interfaces. Several
multiport cards are supported as well. See the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sio</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> manual page for detailed technical
documentation.</para>
<sect4>
<title>Digi International (DigiBoard) PC/8</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.awebster;.<!-- <br> -->26
August 1995.</emphasis></para>
<para>Here is a config snippet from a machine with a Digi
International PC/8 with 16550. It has 8 modems connected to
these 8 lines, and they work just great. Do not forget to add
<literal>options COM_MULTIPORT</literal> or it will
not work very well!</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>device sio4 at isa? port 0x100 tty flags
0xb05 device sio5 at isa? port 0x108 tty flags
0xb05 device sio6 at isa? port 0x110 tty flags
0xb05 device sio7 at isa? port 0x118 tty flags
0xb05 device sio8 at isa? port 0x120 tty flags
0xb05 device sio9 at isa? port 0x128 tty flags
0xb05 device sio10 at isa? port 0x130 tty flags
0xb05 device sio11 at isa? port 0x138 tty flags
0xb05 irq 9 vector siointr</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>The trick in setting this up is that the MSB of the flags
represent the last SIO port, in this case 11 so flags are
0xb05.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Boca 16</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.whiteside;.<!-- <br> -->26
August 1995.</emphasis></para>
<para>The procedures to make a Boca 16 pord board with FreeBSD
are pretty straightforward, but you will need a couple things
to make it work:</para>
<para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>You either need the kernel sources installed so you
can recompile the necessary options or you will need
someone else to compile it for you. The 2.0.5 default
kernel does <emphasis remap=bf>not</emphasis> come with
multiport support enabled and you will need to add a
device entry for each port anyways.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Two, you will need to know the interrupt and IO
setting for your Boca Board so you can set these options
properly in the kernel.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
<para>One important note - the actual UART chips for the Boca 16
are in the connector box, not on the internal board itself. So
if you have it unplugged, probes of those ports will fail. I
have never tested booting with the box unplugged and plugging
it back in, and I suggest you do not either.</para>
<para>If you do not already have a custom kernel configuration
file set up, refer to <xref
linkend="kernelconfig" remap="Kernel Configuration"> for
general procedures. The following are the specifics for the
Boca 16 board and assume you are using the kernel name
MYKERNEL and editing with vi.</para>
<para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Add the line
<informalexample>
<screen>options COM_MULTIPORT</screen>
</informalexample> to the config file.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Where the current <emphasis remap=tt>device sio
<replaceable>xxx</replaceable></emphasis> lines are,
you will need to add 16 more devices. <emphasis>Only
the last device includes the interrupt vector for the
board</emphasis>. (See the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sio</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> manual page for detail as
to why.) The following example is for a Boca Board with
an interrupt of 3, and a base IO address 100h. The IO
address for Each port is +8 hexadecimal from the
previous port, thus the 100h, 108h, 110h... addresses.
<informalexample>
<screen>device sio1 at isa? port 0x100 tty flags
0x1005 device sio2 at isa? port 0x108 tty flags
0x1005 device sio3 at isa? port 0x110 tty flags
0x1005 device sio4 at isa? port 0x118 tty flags
0x1005 [...] device sio15 at isa? port 0x170 tty
flags 0x1005 device sio16 at isa? port 0x178 tty
flags 0x1005 irq 3 vector siointr</screen>
</informalexample> The flags entry
<emphasis>must</emphasis> be changed from this example
unless you are using the exact same sio assignments.
Flags are set according to 0x<option><replaceable>M</replaceable>YY</option>
where <replaceable>M</replaceable> indicates the minor number
of the master port (the last port on a Boca 16) and
<replaceable>YY</replaceable> indicates if FIFO is enabled or
disabled(enabled), IRQ sharing is used(yes) and if there
is an AST/4 compatible IRQ control register(no). In this
example,
<informalexample>
<screen>flags 0x1005</screen>
</informalexample> indicates that the master port is
sio16. If I added another board and assigned sio17
through sio28, the flags for all 16 ports on
<emphasis>that</emphasis> board would be 0x1C05, where
1C indicates the minor number of the master port. Do not
change the 05 setting.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Save and complete the kernel configuration,
recompile, install and reboot. Presuming you have
successfully installed the recompiled kernel and have it
set to the correct address and IRQ, your boot message
should indicate the successful probe of the Boca ports
as follows: (obviously the sio numbers, IO and IRQ could
be different)
<informalexample>
<screen>sio1 at 0x100-0x107 flags 0x1005 on isa sio1:
type 16550A (multiport) sio2 at 0x108-0x10f flags
0x1005 on isa sio2: type 16550A (multiport) sio3 at
0x110-0x117 flags 0x1005 on isa sio3: type 16550A
(multiport) sio4 at 0x118-0x11f flags 0x1005 on isa
sio4: type 16550A (multiport) sio5 at 0x120-0x127
flags 0x1005 on isa sio5: type 16550A (multiport)
sio6 at 0x128-0x12f flags 0x1005 on isa sio6: type
16550A (multiport) sio7 at 0x130-0x137 flags 0x1005
on isa sio7: type 16550A (multiport) sio8 at
0x138-0x13f flags 0x1005 on isa sio8: type 16550A
(multiport) sio9 at 0x140-0x147 flags 0x1005 on isa
sio9: type 16550A (multiport) sio10 at 0x148-0x14f
flags 0x1005 on isa sio10: type 16550A (multiport)
sio11 at 0x150-0x157 flags 0x1005 on isa sio11: type
16550A (multiport) sio12 at 0x158-0x15f flags 0x1005
on isa sio12: type 16550A (multiport) sio13 at
0x160-0x167 flags 0x1005 on isa sio13: type 16550A
(multiport) sio14 at 0x168-0x16f flags 0x1005 on isa
sio14: type 16550A (multiport) sio15 at 0x170-0x177
flags 0x1005 on isa sio15: type 16550A (multiport)
sio16 at 0x178-0x17f irq 3 flags 0x1005 on isa
sio16: type 16550A (multiport master)</screen>
</informalexample> If the messages go by too fast to
see, <command>dmesg &gt; more</command> will
show you the boot messages.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Next, appropriate entries in
<filename>/dev</filename> for the devices must be made
using the <filename>/dev/MAKEDEV</filename> script.
After becoming root:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; cd /dev<!-- <br> --> &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV tty1<!--
<br> --> &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV cua1<!-- <br> -->
<emphasis>(everything in between)</emphasis><!--
<br> --> &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV ttyg<!-- <br> --> &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV
cuag</screen>
</informalexample> If you do not want or need callout
devices for some reason, you can dispense with making
the <filename>cua*</filename> devices.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If you want a quick and sloppy way to make sure the
devices are working, you can simply plug a modem into
each port and (as root) <command>echo at &gt;
ttyd*</command> for each device you have made. You
<emphasis>should</emphasis> see the RX lights flash for
each working port.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="cy">
<title>Configuring the <emphasis remap=tt>cy</emphasis>
driver</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.alex;.<!-- <br> -->6 June
1996.</emphasis></para>
<para>The Cyclades multiport cards are based on the <emphasis
remap=tt>cy</emphasis> driver instead of the usual <emphasis
remap=tt>sio</emphasis> driver used by other multiport cards.
Configuration is a simple matter of:</para>
<para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Add the <emphasis remap=tt>cy</emphasis> device to
your
<xref linkend="kernelconfig-config" remap="kernel
configuration"> (note that your irq and iomem settings
may differ).
<informalexample>
<screen>device cy0 at isa? tty irq 10 iomem 0xd4000
iosiz 0x2000 vector cyintr</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><xref linkend="kernelconfig-building" remap="Rebuild
and install"> the new kernel.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Make the <xref linkend="kernelconfig-nodes"
remap="device nodes"> by typing (the following example
assumes an 8-port board):
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; for i in 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7;do
./MAKEDEV cuac$i ttyc$i;done</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If appropriate, add <xref linkend="dialup"
remap="dialup"> entries to <xref linkend="dialup-ttys"
remap="/etc/ttys">
by duplicating serial device (<literal>ttyd</literal>) entries and using <literal>ttyc</literal> in place of <literal>ttyd</literal>. For example:
<informalexample>
<screen>ttyc0 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400"
unknown on insecure ttyc1 "/usr/libexec/getty
std.38400" unknown on insecure ttyc2
"/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" unknown on insecure
[...] ttyc7 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400"
unknown on insecure</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Reboot with the new kernel.
</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>* Parallel ports</title>
<para></para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>* Modems</title>
<para></para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>* Network cards</title>
<para></para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>* Keyboards</title>
<para></para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>* Mice</title>
<para></para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>* Other</title>
<para></para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="hw-storage">
<title>Storage Devices</title>
<sect2
id="esdi">
<title>Using ESDI hard disks</title>
<para><emphasis>Copyright &copy; 1995, &a.wilko;.<!-- <br> -->24
September 1995.</emphasis></para>
<para>ESDI is an acronym that means Enhanced Small Device Interface.
It is loosely based on the good old ST506/412 interface originally
devised by Seagate Technology, the makers of the first affordable
5.25" winchester disk.</para>
<para>The acronym says Enhanced, and rightly so. In the first place
the speed of the interface is higher, 10 or 15 Mbits/second
instead of the 5 Mbits/second of ST412 interfaced drives. Secondly
some higher level commands are added, making the ESDI interface
somewhat 'smarter' to the operating system driver writers. It is
by no means as smart as SCSI by the way. ESDI is standardized by
ANSI.</para>
<para>Capacities of the drives are boosted by putting more sectors
on each track. Typical is 35 sectors per track, high capacity
drives I have seen were up to 54 sectors/track.</para>
<para>Although ESDI has been largely obsoleted by IDE and SCSI
interfaces, the availability of free or cheap surplus drives makes
them ideal for low (or now) budget systems.</para>
<sect3>
<title>Concepts of ESDI</title>
<sect4>
<title>Physical connections</title>
<para>The ESDI interface uses two cables connected to each
drive. One cable is a 34 pin flat cable edge connector that
carries the command and status signals from the controller to
the drive and vice-versa. The command cable is daisy chained
between all the drives. So, it forms a bus onto which all
drives are connected.</para>
<para>The second cable is a 20 pin flat cable edge connector
that carries the data to and from the drive. This cable is
radially connected, so each drive has its own direct
connection to the controller.</para>
<para>To the best of my knowledge PC ESDI controllers are
limited to using a maximum of 2 drives per controller. This is
compatibility feature(?) left over from the WD1003 standard
that reserves only a single bit for device addressing.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Device addressing</title>
<para>On each command cable a maximum of 7 devices and 1
controller can be present. To enable the controller to
uniquely identify which drive it addresses, each ESDI device
is equipped with jumpers or switches to select the devices
address.</para>
<para>On PC type controllers the first drive is set to address
0, the second disk to address 1. <emphasis>Always
make sure</emphasis> you set each disk to an unique address!
So, on a PC with its two drives/controller maximum the first
drive is drive 0, the second is drive 1.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Termination</title>
<para>The daisy chained command cable (the 34 pin cable
remember?) needs to be terminated at the last drive on the
chain. For this purpose ESDI drives come with a termination
resistor network that can be removed or disabled by a jumper
when it is not used.</para>
<para>So, one and <emphasis>only</emphasis> one drive,
the one at the farthest end of the command cable has its
terminator installed/enabled. The controller automatically
terminates the other end of the cable. Please note that this
implies that the controller must be at one end of the cable
and <emphasis>not</emphasis> in the middle.</para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Using ESDI disks with FreeBSD</title>
<para>Why is ESDI such a pain to get working in the first
place?</para>
<para>People who tried ESDI disks with FreeBSD are known to have
developed a profound sense of frustration. A combination of
factors works against you to produce effects that are hard to
understand when you have never seen them before.</para>
<para>This has also led to the popular legend ESDI and FreeBSD is
a plain NO-GO. The following sections try to list all the
pitfalls and solutions.</para>
<sect4>
<title>ESDI speed variants</title>
<para>As briefly mentioned before, ESDI comes in two speed
flavors. The older drives and controllers use a 10
Mbits/second data transfer rate. Newer stuff uses 15
Mbits/second.</para>
<para>It is not hard to imagine that 15 Mbits/second drive cause
problems on controllers laid out for 10 Mbits/second. As
always, consult your controller <emphasis
remap=it>and</emphasis> drive documentation to see if
things match.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Stay on track</title>
<para>Mainstream ESDI drives use 34 to 36 sectors per track.
Most (older) controllers cannot handle more than this number
of sectors. Newer, higher capacity, drives use higher numbers
of sectors per track. For instance, I own a 670 Mb drive that
has 54 sectors per track.</para>
<para>In my case, the controller could not handle this number of
sectors. It proved to work well except that it only used 35
sectors on each track. This meant losing a lot of disk
space.</para>
<para>Once again, check the documentation of your hardware for
more info. Going out-of-spec like in the example might or
might not work. Give it a try or get another more capable
controller.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Hard or soft sectoring</title>
<para>Most ESDI drives allow hard or soft sectoring to be
selected using a jumper. Hard sectoring means that the drive
will produce a sector pulse on the start of each new sector.
The controller uses this pulse to tell when it should start to
write or read.</para>
<para>Hard sectoring allows a selection of sector size (normally
256, 512 or 1024 bytes per formatted sector). FreeBSD uses
512 byte sectors. The number of sectors per track also varies
while still using the same number of bytes per formatted
sector. The number of <emphasis>unformatted</emphasis> bytes
per sector varies, dependent on your controller it needs more
or less overhead bytes to work correctly. Pushing more
sectors on a track of course gives you more usable space, but
might give problems if your controller needs more bytes than
the drive offers.</para>
<para>In case of soft sectoring, the controller itself
determines where to start/stop reading or writing. For ESDI
hard sectoring is the default (at least on everything I came
across). I never felt the urge to try soft sectoring.</para>
<para>In general, experiment with sector settings before you
install FreeBSD because you need to re-run the low-level
format after each change.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Low level formatting</title>
<para>ESDI drives need to be low level formatted before they are
usable. A reformat is needed whenever you figgle with the
number of sectors/track jumpers or the physical orientation of
the drive (horizontal, vertical). So, first think, then
format. The format time must not be underestimated, for big
disks it can take hours. </para>
<para>After a low level format, a surface scan is done to find
and flag bad sectors. Most disks have a manufacturer bad block
list listed on a piece of paper or adhesive sticker. In
addition, on most disks the list is also written onto the
disk. Please use the manufacturer's list. It is much easier to
remap a defect now than after FreeBSD is installed.</para>
<para>Stay away from low-level formatters that mark all sectors
of a track as bad as soon as they find one bad sector. Not
only does this waste space, it also and more importantly
causes you grief with bad144 (see the section on
bad144).</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Translations</title>
<para>Translations, although not exclusively a ESDI-only
problem, might give you real trouble. Translations come in
multiple flavors. Most of them have in common that they
attempt to work around the limitations posed upon disk
geometries by the original IBM PC/AT design (thanks
IBM!).</para>
<para>First of all there is the (in)famous 1024 cylinder limit.
For a system to be able to boot, the stuff (whatever
operating system) must be in the first 1024 cylinders of a
disk. Only 10 bits are available to encode the cylinder
number. For the number of sectors the limit is 64 (0-63). When
you combine the 1024 cylinder limit with the 16 head limit
(also a design feature) you max out at fairly limited disk
sizes. </para>
<para>To work around this problem, the manufacturers of ESDI PC
controllers added a BIOS prom extension on their boards. This
BIOS extension handles disk I/O for booting (and for some
operating systems <emphasis>all</emphasis> disk I/O)
by using translation. For instance, a big drive might be
presented to the system as having 32 heads and 64
sectors/track. The result is that the number of cylinders is
reduced to something below 1024 and is therefore usable by the
system without problems. It is noteworthy to know that FreeBSD
does not use the BIOS after its kernel has started. More on
this later.</para>
<para>A second reason for translations is the fact that most
older system BIOSes could only handle drives with 17 sectors
per track (the old ST412 standard). Newer system BIOSes
usually have a user-defined drive type (in most cases this is
drive type 47).</para>
<para><emphasis>Whatever you do to translations after reading
this document, keep in mind that if you have multiple
operating systems on the same disk, all must use the same
translation</emphasis></para>
<para>While on the subject of translations, I have seen one
controller type (but there are probably more like this) offer
the option to logically split a drive in multiple partitions
as a BIOS option. I had select 1 drive == 1 partition because
this controller wrote this info onto the disk. On power-up it
read the info and presented itself to the system based on the
info from the disk.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Spare sectoring</title>
<para>Most ESDI controllers offer the possibility to remap bad
sectors. During/after the low-level format of the disk bad
sectors are marked as such, and a replacement sector is put in
place (logically of course) of the bad one. </para>
<para>In most cases the remapping is done by using N-1 sectors
on each track for actual data storage, and sector N itself is
the spare sector. N is the total number of sectors physically
available on the track. The idea behind this is that the
operating system sees a 'perfect' disk without bad sectors. In
the case of FreeBSD this concept is not usable.</para>
<para>The problem is that the translation from <emphasis
remap=it>bad</emphasis> to <emphasis
remap=it>good</emphasis> is performed by the BIOS of the
ESDI controller. FreeBSD, being a true 32 bit operating
system, does not use the BIOS after it has been booted.
Instead, it has device drivers that talk directly to the
hardware.</para>
<para><emphasis>So: don't use spare sectoring, bad block
remapping or whatever it may be called by the controller
manufacturer when you want to use the disk for
FreeBSD.</emphasis></para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Bad block handling</title>
<para>The preceding section leaves us with a problem. The
controller's bad block handling is not usable and still
FreeBSD's filesystems assume perfect media without any flaws.
To solve this problem, FreeBSD use the <emphasis
remap=it>bad144</emphasis> tool. Bad144 (named after a
Digital Equipment standard for bad block handling) scans a
FreeBSD slice for bad blocks. Having found these bad blocks,
it writes a table with the offending block numbers to the end
of the FreeBSD slice. </para>
<para>When the disk is in operation, the disk accesses are
checked against the table read from the disk. Whenever a
block number is requested that is in the bad144 list, a
replacement block (also from the end of the FreeBSD slice) is
used. In this way, the bad144 replacement scheme presents
'perfect' media to the FreeBSD filesystems.</para>
<para>There are a number of potential pitfalls associated with
the use of bad144. First of all, the slice cannot have more
than 126 bad sectors. If your drive has a high number of bad
sectors, you might need to divide it into multiple FreeBSD
slices each containing less than 126 bad sectors. Stay away
from low-level format programs that mark
<emphasis>every</emphasis> sector of a track as bad when they
find a flaw on the track. As you can imagine, the 126 limit
is quickly reached when the low-level format is done this
way.</para>
<para>Second, if the slice contains the root filesystem, the
slice should be within the 1024 cylinder BIOS limit. During
the boot process the bad144 list is read using the BIOS and
this only succeeds when the list is within the 1024 cylinder
limit.</para>
<note>
<para>The restriction is not that only the root
<emphasis>filesystem</emphasis> must be within the 1024
cylinder limit, but rather the entire
<emphasis>slice</emphasis> that contains the root
filesystem.</para>
</note>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Kernel configuration</title>
<para>ESDI disks are handled by the same <emphasis
remap=it>wd</emphasis>driver as IDE and ST412 MFM disks. The
<emphasis remap=it>wd</emphasis> driver should work for all
WD1003 compatible interfaces. </para>
<para>Most hardware is jumperable for one of two different I/O
address ranges and IRQ lines. This allows you to have two wd
type controllers in one system. </para>
<para>When your hardware allows non-standard strappings, you can
use these with FreeBSD as long as you enter the correct info
into the kernel config file. An example from the kernel config
file (they live in <filename>/sys/i386/conf</filename>
BTW).</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen># First WD compatible controller controller
wdc0 at isa? port "IO_WD1" bio irq 14 vector wdintr
disk wd0 at wdc0 drive 0 disk
wd1 at wdc0 drive 1 # Second WD compatible controller
controller wdc1 at isa? port "IO_WD2" bio irq 15
vector wdintr disk wd2 at wdc1 drive 0 disk
wd3 at wdc1 drive 1</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Particulars on ESDI hardware</title>
<sect4>
<title>Adaptec 2320 controllers</title>
<para>I successfully installed FreeBSD onto a ESDI disk
controlled by a ACB-2320. No other operating system was
present on the disk.</para>
<para>To do so I low level formatted the disk using NEFMT.EXE
(<emphasis remap=it>ftp</emphasis>able from
<filename>www.adaptec.com</filename>) and answered NO to the
question whether the disk should be formatted with a spare
sector on each track. The BIOS on the ACD-2320 was disabled. I
used the 'free configurable' option in the system BIOS to
allow the BIOS to boot it.</para>
<para>Before using NEFMT.EXE I tried to format the disk using
the ACB-2320 BIOS builtin formatter. This proved to be a show
stopper, because it did not give me an option to disable spare
sectoring. With spare sectoring enabled the FreeBSD
installation process broke down on the bad144 run.</para>
<para>Please check carefully which ACB-232xy variant you have.
The x is either 0 or 2, indicating a controller without or
with a floppy controller on board. </para>
<para>The y is more interesting. It can either be a blank, a
<literal>A-8</literal> or a <literal>D</literal>. A blank indicates a plain 10 Mbits/second
controller. An <literal>A-8</literal> indicates a 15 Mbits/second controller
capable of handling 52 sectors/track. A <literal>D</literal> means a 15
Mbits/second controller that can also handle drives with &gt;
36 sectors/track (also 52 ?).</para>
<para>All variations should be capable of using 1:1
interleaving. Use 1:1, FreeBSD is fast enough to handle
it.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Western Digital WD1007 controllers</title>
<para>I successfully installed FreeBSD onto a ESDI disk
controlled by a WD1007 controller. To be precise, it was a
WD1007-WA2. Other variations of the WD1007 do exist.</para>
<para>To get it to work, I had to disable the sector translation
and the WD1007's onboard BIOS. This implied I could not use
the low-level formatter built into this BIOS. Instead, I
grabbed WDFMT.EXE from www.wdc.com Running this formatted my
drive just fine. </para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Ultrastor U14F controllers</title>
<para>According to multiple reports from the net, Ultrastor ESDI
boards work OK with FreeBSD. I lack any further info on
particular settings.</para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="esdi-further-reading">
<title>Further reading</title>
<para>If you intend to do some serious ESDI hacking, you might
want to have the official standard at hand:</para>
<para>The latest ANSI X3T10 committee document is:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Enhanced Small Device Interface (ESDI)
[X3.170-1990/X3.170a-1991] [X3T10/792D Rev 11]</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist> On Usenet the newsgroup <ulink
URL="news:comp.periphs">comp.periphs</ulink> is a noteworthy
place to look for more info.</para>
<para>The World Wide Web (WWW) also proves to be a very handy info
source: For info on Adaptec ESDI controllers see <ulink
URL="http://www.adaptec.com/">http://www.adaptec.com/</ulink>.
For info on Western Digital controllers see <ulink
URL="http://www.wdc.com/">http://www.wdc.com/</ulink>.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Thanks to...
</title>
<para>Andrew Gordon for sending me an Adaptec 2320 controller and
ESDI disk for testing.</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="scsi">
<title>What is SCSI?</title>
<para><emphasis>Copyright &copy; 1995, &a.wilko;.<!-- <br> -->July
6, 1996.</emphasis></para>
<para>SCSI is an acronym for Small Computer Systems Interface. It
is an ANSI standard that has become one of the leading I/O buses
in the computer industry. The foundation of the SCSI standard was
laid by Shugart Associates (the same guys that gave the world the
first mini floppy disks) when they introduced the SASI bus
(Shugart Associates Standard Interface).</para>
<para>After some time an industry effort was started to come to a
more strict standard allowing devices from different vendors to
work together. This effort was recognized in the ANSI SCSI-1
standard. The SCSI-1 standard (approx 1985) is rapidly becoming
obsolete. The current standard is SCSI-2 (see <xref
linkend="scsi-further-reading"
remap="Further reading">), with SCSI-3 on the drawing
boards.</para>
<para>In addition to a physical interconnection standard, SCSI
defines a logical (command set) standard to which disk devices
must adhere. This standard is called the Common Command Set (CCS)
and was developed more or less in parallel with ANSI SCSI-1.
SCSI-2 includes the (revised) CCS as part of the standard itself.
The commands are dependent on the type of device at hand. It does
not make much sense of course to define a Write command for a
scanner.</para>
<para>The SCSI bus is a parallel bus, which comes in a number of
variants. The oldest and most used is an 8 bit wide bus, with
single-ended signals, carried on 50 wires. (If you do not know
what single-ended means, do not worry, that is what this document
is all about.) Modern designs also use 16 bit wide buses, with
differential signals. This allows transfer speeds of
20Mbytes/second, on cables lengths of up to 25 meters. SCSI-2
allows a maximum bus width of 32 bits, using an additional cable.
Quickly emerging are Ultra SCSI (also called Fast-20) and Ultra2
(also called Fast-40). Fast-20 is 20 million transfers per second
(20 Mbytes/sec on a 8 bit bus), Fast-40 is 40 million transfers
per second (40 Mbytes/sec on a 8 bit bus). Most hard drives sold
today are single-ended Ultra SCSI (8 or 16 bits).</para>
<para>Of course the SCSI bus not only has data lines, but also a
number of control signals. A very elaborate protocol is part of
the standard to allow multiple devices to share the bus in an
efficient manner. In SCSI-2, the data is always checked using a
separate parity line. In pre-SCSI-2 designs parity was
optional.</para>
<para>In SCSI-3 even faster bus types are introduced, along with a
serial SCSI busses that reduces the cabling overhead and allows a
higher maximum bus length. You might see names like SSA and
Fiberchannel in this context. None of the serial buses are
currently in widespread use (especially not in the typical FreeBSD
environment). For this reason the serial bus types are not
discussed any further.</para>
<para>As you could have guessed from the description above, SCSI
devices are intelligent. They have to be to adhere to the SCSI
standard (which is over 2 inches thick BTW). So, for a hard disk
drive for instance you do not specify a head/cylinder/sector to
address a particular block, but simply the number of the block you
want. Elaborate caching schemes, automatic bad block replacement
etc are all made possible by this 'intelligent device'
approach.</para>
<para>On a SCSI bus, each possible pair of devices can communicate.
Whether their function allows this is another matter, but the
standard does not restrict it. To avoid signal contention, the 2
devices have to arbitrate for the bus before using it.</para>
<para>The philosophy of SCSI is to have a standard that allows
older-standard devices to work with newer-standard ones. So, an
old SCSI-1 device should normally work on a SCSI-2 bus. I say
Normally, because it is not absolutely sure that the
implementation of an old device follows the (old) standard closely
enough to be acceptable on a new bus. Modern devices are usually
more well-behaved, because the standardization has become more
strict and is better adhered to by the device manufacturers.
</para>
<para>Generally speaking, the chances of getting a working set of
devices on a single bus is better when all the devices are SCSI-2
or newer. This implies that you do not have to dump all your old
stuff when you get that shiny 2GB disk: I own a system on which a
pre-SCSI-1 disk, a SCSI-2 QIC tape unit, a SCSI-1 helical scan
tape unit and 2 SCSI-1 disks work together quite happily. From a
performance standpoint you might want to separate your older and
newer (=faster) devices however.</para>
<sect3>
<title>Components of SCSI</title>
<para>As said before, SCSI devices are smart. The idea is to put
the knowledge about intimate hardware details onto the SCSI
device itself. In this way, the host system does not have to
worry about things like how many heads are hard disks has, or
how many tracks there are on a specific tape device. If you are
curious, the standard specifies commands with which you can
query your devices on their hardware particulars. FreeBSD uses
this capability during boot to check out what devices are
connected and whether they need any special treatment.</para>
<para>The advantage of intelligent devices is obvious: the device
drivers on the host can be made in a much more generic fashion,
there is no longer a need to change (and qualify!) drivers for
every odd new device that is introduced.</para>
<para>For cabling and connectors there is a golden rule: get good
stuff. With bus speeds going up all the time you will save
yourself a lot of grief by using good material.</para>
<para>So, gold plated connectors, shielded cabling, sturdy
connector hoods with strain reliefs etc are the way to go.
Second golden rule: do no use cables longer than necessary. I
once spent 3 days hunting down a problem with a flaky machine
only to discover that shortening the SCSI bus by 1 meter solved
the problem. And the original bus length was well within the
SCSI specification.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>SCSI bus types</title>
<para>From an electrical point of view, there are two incompatible
bus types: single-ended and differential. This means that there
are two different main groups of SCSI devices and controllers,
which cannot be mixed on the same bus. It is possible however
to use special converter hardware to transform a single-ended
bus into a differential one (and vice versa). The differences
between the bus types are explained in the next sections.</para>
<para>In lots of SCSI related documentation there is a sort of
jargon in use to abbreviate the different bus types. A small
list:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>FWD: Fast Wide Differential</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>FND: Fast Narrow Differential</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>SE: Single Ended</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>FN: Fast Narrow</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>etc.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>With a minor amount of imagination one can usually imagine
what is meant.</para>
<para>Wide is a bit ambiguous, it can indicate 16 or 32 bit buses.
As far as I know, the 32 bit variant is not (yet) in use, so
wide normally means 16 bit.</para>
<para>Fast means that the timing on the bus is somewhat different,
so that on a narrow (8 bit) bus 10 Mbytes/sec are possible
instead of 5 Mbytes/sec for 'slow' SCSI. As discussed before,
bus speeds of 20 and 40 million transfers/second are also
emerging (Fast-20 == Ultra SCSI and Fast-40 == Ultra2 SCSI).
</para>
<note>
<para>The data lines &gt; 8 are only used for data transfers and
device addressing. The transfers of commands and status
messages etc are only performed on the lowest 8 data lines.
The standard allows narrow devices to operate on a wide bus.
The usable bus width is negotiated between the devices. You
have to watch your device addressing closely when mixing wide
and narrow.</para>
</note>
<sect4>
<title>Single ended buses</title>
<para>A single-ended SCSI bus uses signals that are either 5
Volts or 0 Volts (indeed, TTL levels) and are relative to a
COMMON ground reference. A singled ended 8 bit SCSI bus has
approximately 25 ground lines, who are all tied to a single
`rail' on all devices. A standard single ended bus has a
maximum length of 6 meters. If the same bus is used with
fast-SCSI devices, the maximum length allowed drops to 3
meters. Fast-SCSI means that instead of 5Mbytes/sec the bus
allows 10Mbytes/sec transfers. </para>
<para>Fast-20 (Ultra SCSI) and Fast-40 allow for 20 and 40
million transfers/second respectively. So, F20 is 20
Mbytes/second on a 8 bit bus, 40 Mbytes/second on a 16 bit bus
etc. For F20 the max bus length is 1.5 meters, for F40 it
becomes 0.75 meters. Be aware that F20 is pushing the limits
quite a bit, so you will quickly find out if your SCSI bus is
electrically sound.</para>
<note>
<para>If some devices on your bus use 'fast' to communicate
your bus must adhere to the length restrictions for fast
buses!</para>
</note>
<para>It is obvious that with the newer fast-SCSI devices the
bus length can become a real bottleneck. This is why the
differential SCSI bus was introduced in the SCSI-2
standard.</para>
<para>For connector pinning and connector types please refer to
the SCSI-2 standard (see <xref linkend="scsi-further-reading"
remap="Further reading">) itself, connectors etc
are listed there in painstaking detail.</para>
<para>Beware of devices using non-standard cabling. For instance
Apple uses a 25pin D-type connecter (like the one on serial
ports and parallel printers). Considering that the official
SCSI bus needs 50 pins you can imagine the use of this
connector needs some 'creative cabling'. The reduction of the
number of ground wires they used is a bad idea, you better
stick to 50 pins cabling in accordance with the SCSI
standard. For Fast-20 and 40 do not even think about buses
like this.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Differential buses</title>
<para>A differential SCSI bus has a maximum length of 25 meters.
Quite a difference from the 3 meters for a single-ended
fast-SCSI bus. The idea behind differential signals is that
each bus signal has its own return wire. So, each signal is
carried on a (preferably twisted) pair of wires. The voltage
difference between these two wires determines whether the
signal is asserted or de-asserted. To a certain extent the
voltage difference between ground and the signal wire pair is
not relevant (do not try 10 kVolts though).</para>
<para>It is beyond the scope of this document to explain why
this differential idea is so much better. Just accept that
electrically seen the use of differential signals gives a much
better noise margin. You will normally find differential buses
in use for inter-cabinet connections. Because of the lower
cost single ended is mostly used for shorter buses like inside
cabinets.</para>
<para>There is nothing that stops you from using differential
stuff with FreeBSD, as long as you use a controller that has
device driver support in FreeBSD. As an example, Adaptec
marketed the AHA1740 as a single ended board, whereas the
AHA1744 was differential. The software interface to the host
is identical for both.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Terminators</title>
<para>Terminators in SCSI terminology are resistor networks that
are used to get a correct impedance matching. Impedance
matching is important to get clean signals on the bus, without
reflections or ringing. If you once made a long distance
telephone call on a bad line you probably know what
reflections are. With 20Mbytes/sec traveling over your SCSI
bus, you do not want signals echoing back.</para>
<para>Terminators come in various incarnations, with more or
less sophisticated designs. Of course, there are internal and
external variants. Many SCSI devices come with a number of
sockets in which a number of resistor networks can (must be!)
installed. If you remove terminators from a device, carefully
store them. You will need them when you ever decide to
reconfigure your SCSI bus. There is enough variation in even
these simple tiny things to make finding the exact replacement
a frustrating business. There are also SCSI devices that have
a single jumper to enable or disable a built-in terminator.
There are special terminators you can stick onto a flat cable
bus. Others look like external connectors, or a connector
hood without a cable. So, lots of choice as you can
see.</para>
<para>There is much debate going on if and when you should
switch from simple resistor (passive) terminators to active
terminators. Active terminators contain slightly more
elaborate circuit to give cleaner bus signals. The general
consensus seems to be that the usefulness of active
termination increases when you have long buses and/or fast
devices. If you ever have problems with your SCSI buses you
might consider trying an active terminator. Try to borrow one
first, they reputedly are quite expensive.</para>
<para>Please keep in mind that terminators for differential and
single-ended buses are not identical. You should <emphasis
remap=bf>not mix</emphasis> the two variants.</para>
<para>OK, and now where should you install your terminators?
This is by far the most misunderstood part of SCSI. And it is
by far the simplest. The rule is: <emphasis remap=bf>every
single line on the SCSI bus has 2 (two) terminators, one at
each end of the bus.</emphasis> So, two and not one or three
or whatever. Do yourself a favor and stick to this rule. It
will save you endless grief, because wrong termination has the
potential to introduce highly mysterious bugs. (Note the
<quote>potential</quote> here; the nastiest part is that it may or may not
work.)</para>
<para>A common pitfall is to have an internal (flat) cable in a
machine and also an external cable attached to the controller.
It seems almost everybody forgets to remove the terminators
from the controller. The terminator must now be on the last
external device, and not on the controller! In general, every
reconfiguration of a SCSI bus must pay attention to
this.</para>
<note>
<para>Termination is to be done on a per-line basis. This
means if you have both narrow and wide buses connected to
the same host adapter, you need to enable termination on the
higher 8 bits of the bus on the adapter (as well as the last
devices on each bus, of course).</para>
</note>
<para>What I did myself is remove all terminators from my SCSI
devices and controllers. I own a couple of external
terminators, for both the Centronics-type external cabling and
for the internal flat cable connectors. This makes
reconfiguration much easier.</para>
<para>On modern devices, sometimes integrated terminators are
used. These things are special purpose integrated circuits
that can be dis/en-abled with a control pin. It is not
necessary to physically remove them from a device. You may
find them on newer host adapters, sometimes they are software
configurable, using some sort of setup tool. Some will even
auto-detect the cables attached to the connectors and
automatically set up the termination as necessary. At any
rate, consult your documentation!</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Terminator power</title>
<para>The terminators discussed in the previous chapter need
power to operate properly. On the SCSI bus, a line is
dedicated to this purpose. So, simple huh?</para>
<para>Not so. Each device can provide its own terminator power
to the terminator sockets it has on-device. But if you have
external terminators, or when the device supplying the
terminator power to the SCSI bus line is switched off you are
in trouble.</para>
<para>The idea is that initiators (these are devices that
initiate actions on the bus, a discussion follows) must supply
terminator power. All SCSI devices are allowed (but not
required) to supply terminator power.</para>
<para>To allow for un-powered devices on a bus, the terminator
power must be supplied to the bus via a diode. This prevents
the backflow of current to un-powered devices.</para>
<para>To prevent all kinds of nastiness, the terminator power is
usually fused. As you can imagine, fuses might blow. This
can, but does not have to, lead to a non functional bus. If
multiple devices supply terminator power, a single blown fuse
will not put you out of business. A single supplier with a
blown fuse certainly will. Clever external terminators
sometimes have a LED indication that shows whether terminator
power is present.</para>
<para>In newer designs auto-restoring fuses that 'reset'
themselves after some time are sometimes used.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Device addressing</title>
<para>Because the SCSI bus is, ehh, a bus there must be a way to
distinguish or address the different devices connected to
it.</para>
<para>This is done by means of the SCSI or target ID. Each
device has a unique target ID. You can select the ID to which
a device must respond using a set of jumpers, or a dip switch,
or something similar. Some SCSI host adapters let you change
the target ID from the boot menu. (Yet some others will not
let you change the ID from 7.) Consult the documentation of
your device for more information.</para>
<para>Beware of multiple devices configured to use the same ID.
Chaos normally reigns in this case. A pitfall is that one of
the devices sharing the same ID sometimes even manages to
answer to I/O requests! </para>
<para>For an 8 bit bus, a maximum of 8 targets is possible. The
maximum is 8 because the selection is done bitwise using the 8
data lines on the bus. For wide buses this increases to the
number of data lines (usually 16).</para>
<note>
<para>A narrow SCSI device can not communicate with a SCSI
device with a target ID larger than 7. This means it is
generally not a good idea to move your SCSI host adapter's
target ID to something higher than 7 (or your CD-ROM will
stop working).</para>
</note>
<para>The higher the SCSI target ID, the higher the priority the
devices has. When it comes to arbitration between devices
that want to use the bus at the same time, the device that has
the highest SCSI ID will win. This also means that the SCSI
host adapter usually uses target ID 7. Note however that the
lower 8 IDs have higher priorities than the higher 8 IDs on a
wide-SCSI bus. Thus, the order of target IDs is: <emphasis
remap=tt>[7 6 .. 1 0 15 14 .. 9 8]</emphasis> on a wide-SCSI
system. (If you you are wondering why the lower 8 have higher
priority, read the previous paragraph for a hint.)</para>
<para>For a further subdivision, the standard allows for Logical
Units or LUNs for short. A single target ID may have multiple
LUNs. For example, a tape device including a tape changer may
have LUN 0 for the tape device itself, and LUN 1 for the tape
changer. In this way, the host system can address each of the
functional units of the tape changer as desired.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Bus layout</title>
<para>SCSI buses are linear. So, not shaped like Y-junctions,
star topologies, rings, cobwebs or whatever else people might
want to invent. One of the most common mistakes is for people
with wide-SCSI host adapters to connect devices on all three
connecters (external connector, internal wide connector,
internal narrow connector). Don't do that. It may appear to
work if you are really lucky, but I can almost guarantee that
your system will stop functioning at the most unfortunate
moment (this is also known as <quote>Murphy's law</quote>).</para>
<para>You might notice that the terminator issue discussed
earlier becomes rather hairy if your bus is not linear. Also,
if you have more connectors than devices on your internal SCSI
cable, make sure you attach devices on connectors on both ends
instead of using the connectors in the middle and let one or
both ends dangle. This will screw up the termination of the
bus.</para>
<para>The electrical characteristics, its noise margins and
ultimately the reliability of it all are tightly related to
linear bus rule.</para>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Stick to the linear bus
rule!</emphasis></para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Using SCSI with FreeBSD</title>
<sect4>
<title>About translations, BIOSes and magic...</title>
<para>As stated before, you should first make sure that you have
a electrically sound bus.</para>
<para>When you want to use a SCSI disk on your PC as boot disk,
you must aware of some quirks related to PC BIOSes. The PC
BIOS in its first incarnation used a low level physical
interface to the hard disk. So, you had to tell the BIOS
(using a setup tool or a BIOS built-in setup) how your disk
physically looked like. This involved stating number of heads,
number of cylinders, number of sectors per track, obscure
things like precompensation and reduced write current cylinder
etc.</para>
<para>One might be inclined to think that since SCSI disks are
smart you can forget about this. Alas, the arcane setup issue
is still present today. The system BIOS needs to know how to
access your SCSI disk with the head/cyl/sector method in order
to load the FreeBSD kernel during boot.</para>
<para>The SCSI host adapter or SCSI controller you have put in
your AT/EISA/PCI/whatever bus to connect your disk therefore
has its own on-board BIOS. During system startup, the SCSI
BIOS takes over the hard disk interface routines from the
system BIOS. To fool the system BIOS, the system setup is
normally set to No hard disk present. Obvious, isn't
it?</para>
<para>The SCSI BIOS itself presents to the system a so called
<emphasis remap=bf>translated</emphasis> drive. This means
that a fake drive table is constructed that allows the PC to
boot the drive. This translation is often (but not always)
done using a pseudo drive with 64 heads and 32 sectors per
track. By varying the number of cylinders, the SCSI BIOS
adapts to the actual drive size. It is useful to note that 32
* 64 / 2 = the size of your drive in megabytes. The division
by 2 is to get from disk blocks that are normally 512 bytes in
size to Kbytes.</para>
<para>Right. All is well now?! No, it is not. The system BIOS
has another quirk you might run into. The number of cylinders
of a bootable hard disk cannot be greater than 1024. Using the
translation above, this is a show-stopper for disks greater
than 1 GB. With disk capacities going up all the time this is
causing problems.</para>
<para>Fortunately, the solution is simple: just use another
translation, e.g. with 128 heads instead of 32. In most cases
new SCSI BIOS versions are available to upgrade older SCSI
host adapters. Some newer adapters have an option, in the form
of a jumper or software setup selection, to switch the
translation the SCSI BIOS uses.</para>
<para>It is very important that <emphasis
remap=bf>all</emphasis> operating systems on the disk use
the <emphasis remap=bf>same translation</emphasis> to get the
right idea about where to find the relevant partitions. So,
when installing FreeBSD you must answer any questions about
heads/cylinders etc using the translated values your host
adapter uses.</para>
<para>Failing to observe the translation issue might lead to
un-bootable systems or operating systems overwriting each
others partitions. Using fdisk you should be able to see all
partitions.</para>
<para>You might have heard some talk of 'lying' devices? Older
FreeBSD kernels used to report the geometry of SCSI disks when
booting. An example from one of my systems:</para>
<para>
<literallayout> aha0 targ 0 lun 0: &lt;MICROP
1588-15MB1057404HSP4&gt; sd0: 636MB (1303250 total sec),
1632 cyl, 15 head, 53 sec, bytes/sec 512 </literallayout>
Newer kernels usually do not report this information. e.g.
<literallayout> (bt0:0:0): "SEAGATE ST41651 7574" type 0
fixed SCSI 2 sd0(bt0:0:0): Direct-Access 1350MB (2766300 512
byte sectors) </literallayout>
</para>
<para>Why has this changed?</para>
<para>This info is retrieved from the SCSI disk itself. Newer
disks often use a technique called zone bit recording. The
idea is that on the outer cylinders of the drive there is more
space so more sectors per track can be put on them. This
results in disks that have more tracks on outer cylinders than
on the inner cylinders and, last but not least, have more
capacity. You can imagine that the value reported by the drive
when inquiring about the geometry now becomes suspect at best,
and nearly always misleading. When asked for a geometry , it
is nearly always better to supply the geometry used by the
BIOS, or <emphasis>if the BIOS is never going to know about
this disk</emphasis>, (e.g. it is not a booting disk) to
supply a fictitious geometry that is convenient.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>SCSI subsystem design</title>
<para>FreeBSD uses a layered SCSI subsystem. For each different
controller card a device driver is written. This driver knows
all the intimate details about the hardware it controls. The
driver has a interface to the upper layers of the SCSI
subsystem through which it receives its commands and reports
back any status.</para>
<para>On top of the card drivers there are a number of more
generic drivers for a class of devices. More specific: a
driver for tape devices (abbreviation: st), magnetic disks
(sd), CD-ROMs (cd) etc. In case you are wondering where you
can find this stuff, it all lives in
<filename>/sys/scsi</filename>. See the man pages in section 4
for more details.</para>
<para>The multi level design allows a decoupling of low-level
bit banging and more high level stuff. Adding support for
another piece of hardware is a much more manageable
problem.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Kernel configuration</title>
<para>Dependent on your hardware, the kernel configuration file
must contain one or more lines describing your host
adapter(s). This includes I/O addresses, interrupts etc.
Consult the man page for your adapter driver to get more info.
Apart from that, check out
<filename>/sys/i386/conf/LINT</filename> for an overview of a
kernel config file. <filename>LINT</filename> contains every
possible option you can dream of. It does
<emphasis>not</emphasis> imply <filename>LINT</filename> will
actually get you to a working kernel at all.</para>
<para>Although it is probably stating the obvious: the kernel
config file should reflect your actual hardware setup. So,
interrupts, I/O addresses etc must match the kernel config
file. During system boot messages will be displayed to
indicate whether the configured hardware was actually
found.</para>
<note>
<para>Note that most of the EISA/PCI drivers (namely <emphasis
remap=tt>ahb, ahc, ncr</emphasis> and <emphasis
remap=tt>amd</emphasis> will automatically obtain the
correct parameters from the host adapters themselves at boot
time; thus, you just need to write, for instance, "<literal>controller ahc0</literal>".</para>
</note>
<para>An example loosely based on the FreeBSD 2.2.5-Release
kernel config file LINT with some added comments (between
[]):</para>
<para>
<literallayout> # SCSI host adapters: `aha', `ahb',
`aic', `bt', `nca' # # aha: Adaptec 154x # ahb: Adaptec 174x
# ahc: Adaptec 274x/284x/294x # aic: Adaptec 152x and sound
cards using the Adaptec AIC-6360 (slow!) # amd: AMD 53c974
based SCSI cards (e.g., Tekram DC-390 and 390T) # bt: Most
Buslogic controllers # nca: ProAudioSpectrum cards using the
NCR 5380 or Trantor T130 # ncr: NCR/Symbios
53c810/815/825/875 etc based SCSI cards # uha: UltraStore
14F and 34F # sea: Seagate ST01/02 8 bit controller (slow!)
# wds: Western Digital WD7000 controller (no
scatter/gather!). # [For an Adaptec AHA274x/284x/294x/394x
etc controller] controller ahc0 [For an NCR/Symbios
53c875 based controller] controller ncr0 [For an Ultrastor
adapter] controller uha0 at isa? port "IO_UHA0" bio irq
? drq 5 vector uhaintr # Map SCSI buses to specific SCSI
adapters controller scbus0 at ahc0 controller scbus2
at ncr0 controller scbus1 at uha0 # The actual SCSI
devices disk sd0 at scbus0 target 0 unit 0 [SCSI disk 0
is at scbus 0, LUN 0] disk sd1 at scbus0 target 1
[implicit LUN 0 if omitted] disk sd2 at scbus1 target 3
[SCSI disk on the uha0] disk sd3 at scbus2 target 4
[SCSI disk on the ncr0] tape st1 at scbus0 target 6
[SCSI tape at target 6] device cd0 at scbus?
[the first ever CD-ROM found, no wiring] </literallayout>
</para>
<para>The example above tells the kernel to look for a ahc
(Adaptec 274x) controller, then for an NCR/Symbios board, and
so on. The lines following the controller specifications tell
the kernel to configure specific devices but
<emphasis>only</emphasis> attach them when they match the
target ID and LUN specified on the corresponding bus. </para>
<para>Wired down devices get 'first shot' at the unit numbers so
the first non 'wired down' device, is allocated the unit
number one greater than the highest 'wired down' unit number
for that kind of device. So, if you had a SCSI tape at target
ID 2 it would be configured as st2, as the tape at target ID 6
is wired down to unit number 1.</para>
<note>
<para>Wired down devices need not be found to get their unit
number. The unit number for a wired down device is reserved
for that device, even if it is turned off at boot time. This
allows the device to be turned on and brought on-line at a
later time, without rebooting. Notice that a device's unit
number has <emphasis>no</emphasis> relationship with its
target ID on the SCSI bus.</para>
</note>
<para>Below is another example of a kernel config file as used
by FreeBSD version &lt; 2.0.5. The difference with the first
example is that devices are not 'wired down'. 'Wired down'
means that you specify which SCSI target belongs to which
device.</para>
<para>A kernel built to the config file below will attach the
first SCSI disk it finds to sd0, the second disk to sd1 etc.
If you ever removed or added a disk, all other devices of the
same type (disk in this case) would 'move around'. This
implies you have to change <filename>/etc/fstab</filename>
each time.</para>
<para>Although the old style still works, you are
<emphasis>strongly</emphasis> recommended to use this new
feature. It will save you a lot of grief whenever you shift
your hardware around on the SCSI buses. So, when you re-use
your old trusty config file after upgrading from a
pre-FreeBSD2.0.5.R system check this out.</para>
<para>
<literallayout>[driver for Adaptec 174x] controller ahb0
at isa? bio irq 11 vector ahbintr [for Adaptec 154x]
controller aha0 at isa? port "IO_AHA0" bio irq 11
drq 5 vector ahaintr [for Seagate ST01/02] controller
sea0 at isa? bio irq 5 iomem 0xc8000 iosiz 0x2000 vector
seaintr controller scbus0 device sd0
[support for 4 SCSI harddisks, sd0 up sd3] device
st0 [support for 2 SCSI tapes] [for the CD-ROM] device
cd0 #Only need one of these, the code dynamically grows
</literallayout>
</para>
<para>Both examples support SCSI disks. If during boot more
devices of a specific type (e.g. sd disks) are found than are
configured in the booting kernel, the system will simply
allocate more devices, incrementing the unit number starting
at the last number 'wired down'. If there are no 'wired down'
devices then counting starts at unit 0.</para>
<para>Use <emphasis remap=tt>man 4 scsi</emphasis> to check for
the latest info on the SCSI subsystem. For more detailed info
on host adapter drivers use eg <emphasis remap=tt>man 4
ahc</emphasis> for info on the Adaptec 294x driver.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Tuning your SCSI kernel setup</title>
<para>Experience has shown that some devices are slow to respond
to INQUIRY commands after a SCSI bus reset (which happens at
boot time). An INQUIRY command is sent by the kernel on boot
to see what kind of device (disk, tape, CD-ROM etc) is
connected to a specific target ID. This process is called
device probing by the way.</para>
<para>To work around the 'slow response' problem, FreeBSD allows
a tunable delay time before the SCSI devices are probed
following a SCSI bus reset. You can set this delay time in
your kernel configuration file using a line like:</para>
<para>
<literallayout>options SCSI_DELAY=15 #Be
pessimistic about Joe SCSI device </literallayout> This line
sets the delay time to 15 seconds. On my own system I had to
use 3 seconds minimum to get my trusty old CD-ROM drive to be
recognized. Start with a high value (say 30 seconds or so)
when you have problems with device recognition. If this
helps, tune it back until it just stays working.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="scsi-rogue-devices">
<title>Rogue SCSI devices
</title>
<para> Although the SCSI standard tries to be complete and
concise, it is a complex standard and implementing things
correctly is no easy task. Some vendors do a better job then
others. </para>
<para>This is exactly where the 'rogue' devices come into view.
Rogues are devices that are recognized by the FreeBSD kernel
as behaving slightly (...) non-standard. Rogue devices are
reported by the kernel when booting. An example for two of my
cartridge tape units:</para>
<para>
<literallayout>Feb 25 21:03:34 yedi /kernel: ahb0 targ 5 lun
0: &lt;TANDBERG TDC 3600 -06:&gt; Feb 25 21:03:34 yedi
/kernel: st0: Tandberg tdc3600 is a known rogue Mar 29
21:16:37 yedi /kernel: aha0 targ 5 lun 0: &lt;ARCHIVE VIPER
150 21247-005&gt; Mar 29 21:16:37 yedi /kernel: st1:
Archive Viper 150 is a known rogue </literallayout>
</para>
<para>For instance, there are devices that respond to all LUNs
on a certain target ID, even if they are actually only one
device. It is easy to see that the kernel might be fooled into
believing that there are 8 LUNs at that particular target ID.
The confusion this causes is left as an exercise to the
reader.</para>
<para>The SCSI subsystem of FreeBSD recognizes devices with bad
habits by looking at the INQUIRY response they send when
probed. Because the INQUIRY response also includes the version
number of the device firmware, it is even possible that for
different firmware versions different workarounds are used.
See e.g. <filename>/sys/scsi/st.c</filename> and
<filename>/sys/scsi/scsiconf.c</filename> for more info on how
this is done.</para>
<para>This scheme works fine, but keep in mind that it of course
only works for devices that are KNOWN to be weird. If you are
the first to connect your bogus Mumbletech SCSI CD-ROM you
might be the one that has to define which workaround is
needed.</para>
<para>After you got your Mumbletech working, please send the
required workaround to the FreeBSD development team for
inclusion in the next release of FreeBSD. Other Mumbletech
owners will be grateful to you.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Multiple LUN devices</title>
<para> In some cases you come across devices that use multiple
logical units (LUNs) on a single SCSI ID. In most cases
FreeBSD only probes devices for LUN 0. An example are so
called bridge boards that connect 2 non-SCSI harddisks to a
SCSI bus (e.g. an Emulex MD21 found in old Sun
systems).</para>
<para>This means that any devices with LUNs != 0 are not
normally found during device probe on system boot. To work
around this problem you must add an appropriate entry in
/sys/scsi/scsiconf.c and rebuild your kernel.</para>
<para>Look for a struct that is initialized like below:
<literallayout> { T_DIRECT, T_FIXED, "MAXTOR", "XT-4170S",
"B5A", "mx1", SC_ONE_LU } </literallayout>
</para>
<para>For you Mumbletech BRIDGE2000 that has more than one LUN,
acts as a SCSI disk and has firmware revision 123 you would
add something like:</para>
<para>
<literallayout> { T_DIRECT, T_FIXED, "MUMBLETECH",
"BRIDGE2000", "123", "sd", SC_MORE_LUS } </literallayout>
</para>
<para>The kernel on boot scans the inquiry data it receives
against the table and acts accordingly. See the source for
more info.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Tagged command queueing</title>
<para> Modern SCSI devices, particularly magnetic disks,
support what is called tagged command queuing (TCQ). </para>
<para>In a nutshell, TCQ allows the device to have multiple I/O
requests outstanding at the same time. Because the device is
intelligent, it can optimise its operations (like head
positioning) based on its own request queue. On SCSI devices
like RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) arrays the
TCQ function is indispensable to take advantage of the
device's inherent parallelism.</para>
<para>Each I/O request is uniquely identified by a 'tag' (hence
the name tagged command queuing) and this tag is used by
FreeBSD to see which I/O in the device drivers queue is
reported as complete by the device.</para>
<para>It should be noted however that TCQ requires device driver
support and that some devices implemented it 'not quite right'
in their firmware. This problem bit me once, and it leads to
highly mysterious problems. In such cases, try to disable
TCQ.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Busmaster host adapters</title>
<para>Most, but not all, SCSI host adapters are bus mastering
controllers. This means that they can do I/O on their own
without putting load onto the host CPU for data
movement.</para>
<para>This is of course an advantage for a multitasking
operating system like FreeBSD. It must be noted however that
there might be some rough edges.</para>
<para>For instance an Adaptec 1542 controller can be set to use
different transfer speeds on the host bus (ISA or AT in this
case). The controller is settable to different rates because
not all motherboards can handle the higher speeds. Problems
like hangups, bad data etc might be the result of using a
higher data transfer rate then your motherboard can
stomach.</para>
<para>The solution is of course obvious: switch to a lower data
transfer rate and try if that works better. </para>
<para>In the case of a Adaptec 1542, there is an option that can
be put into the kernel config file to allow dynamic
determination of the right, read: fastest feasible, transfer
rate. This option is disabled by default:</para>
<para>
<literallayout>options "TUNE_1542" #dynamic
tune of bus DMA speed </literallayout>
</para>
<para>Check the man pages for the host adapter that you use. Or
better still, use the ultimate documentation (read: driver
source).</para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Tracking down problems</title>
<para>The following list is an attempt to give a guideline for the
most common SCSI problems and their solutions. It is by no means
complete.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Check for loose connectors and cables.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Check and double check the location and number of your
terminators.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Check if your bus has at least one supplier of
terminator power (especially with external
terminators.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Check if no double target IDs are used.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Check if all devices to be used are powered up.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Make a minimal bus config with as little devices as
possible.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If possible, configure your host adapter to use slow
bus speeds.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Disable tagged command queuing to make things as
simple as possible (for a NCR hostadapter based system see
man ncrcontrol)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If you can compile a kernel, make one with the
SCSIDEBUG option, and try accessing the device with
debugging turned on for that device. If your device does
not even probe at startup, you may have to define the
address of the device that is failing, and the desired
debug level in <filename>/sys/scsi/scsidebug.h</filename>.
If it probes but just does not work, you can use the
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>scsi</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> command to dynamically set a
debug level to it in a running kernel (if SCSIDEBUG is
defined). This will give you COPIOUS debugging output with
which to confuse the gurus. see <emphasis remap=tt>man 4
scsi</emphasis> for more exact information. Also look at
<emphasis remap=tt>man 8 scsi</emphasis>.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="scsi-further-reading">
<title>Further reading</title>
<para>If you intend to do some serious SCSI hacking, you might
want to have the official standard at hand:</para>
<para>Approved American National Standards can be purchased from
ANSI at 11 West 42nd Street, 13th Floor, New York, NY 10036,
Sales Dept: (212) 642-4900. You can also buy many ANSI
standards and most committee draft documents from Global
Engineering Documents, 15 Inverness Way East, Englewood, CO
80112-5704, Phone: (800) 854-7179, Outside USA and Canada: (303)
792-2181, FAX: (303) 792- 2192.</para>
<para>Many X3T10 draft documents are available electronically on
the SCSI BBS (719-574-0424) and on the ncrinfo.ncr.com anonymous
ftp site.</para>
<para>Latest X3T10 committee documents are:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>AT Attachment (ATA or IDE) [X3.221-1994]
(<emphasis>Approved</emphasis>)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>ATA Extensions (ATA-2) [X3T10/948D Rev 2i]</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Enhanced Small Device Interface (ESDI)
[X3.170-1990/X3.170a-1991]
(<emphasis>Approved</emphasis>)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Small Computer System Interface - 2 (SCSI-2)
[X3.131-1994] (<emphasis>Approved</emphasis>)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>SCSI-2 Common Access Method Transport and SCSI
Interface Module (CAM) [X3T10/792D Rev 11]</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist> Other publications that might provide you with
additional information are:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><quote>SCSI: Understanding the Small Computer System
Interface</quote>, written by NCR Corporation. Available from:
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 07632 Phone: (201)
767-5937 ISBN 0-13-796855-8
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><quote>Basics of SCSI</quote>, a SCSI tutorial written by Ancot
Corporation Contact Ancot for availability information at:
Phone: (415) 322-5322 Fax: (415) 322-0455
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><quote>SCSI Interconnection Guide Book</quote>, an AMP publication
(dated 4/93, Catalog 65237) that lists the various SCSI
connectors and suggests cabling schemes. Available from
AMP at (800) 522-6752 or (717) 564-0100
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><quote>Fast Track to SCSI</quote>, A Product Guide written by
Fujitsu. Available from: Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
NJ, 07632 Phone: (201) 767-5937 ISBN 0-13-307000-X
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><quote>The SCSI Bench Reference</quote>, <quote>The SCSI Encyclopedia</quote>,
and the <quote>SCSI Tutor</quote>, ENDL Publications, 14426 Black
Walnut Court, Saratoga CA, 95070 Phone: (408) 867-6642
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><quote>Zadian SCSI Navigator</quote> (quick ref. book) and
<quote>Discover the Power of SCSI</quote> (First book along with a
one-hour video and tutorial book), Zadian Software, Suite
214, 1210 S. Bascom Ave., San Jose, CA 92128, (408)
293-0800</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>On Usenet the newsgroups <ulink
URL="news:comp.periphs.scsi">comp.periphs.scsi</ulink> and
<ulink URL="news:comp.periphs">comp.periphs</ulink> are
noteworthy places to look for more info. You can also find the
SCSI-Faq there, which is posted periodically.</para>
<para>Most major SCSI device and host adapter suppliers operate
ftp sites and/or BBS systems. They may be valuable sources of
information about the devices you own.
</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="hw-storage-controllers">
<title>* Disk/tape controllers
</title>
<sect3>
<title>* SCSI</title>
<para></para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>* IDE</title>
<para></para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>* Floppy</title>
<para></para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title> Hard drives</title>
<sect3>
<title> SCSI hard drives</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.asami;.<!-- <br> -->17 February
1998.</emphasis></para>
<para>As mentioned in the <xref linkend="scsi" remap="SCSI">
section, virtually all SCSI hard drives sold today are SCSI-2
compliant and thus will work fine as long as you connect them to
a supported SCSI host adapter. Most problems people encounter
are either due to badly designed cabling (cable too long, star
topology, etc.), insufficient termination, or defective parts.
Please refer to the <xref linkend="scsi" remap="SCSI">
section first if your SCSI hard drive is not working. However,
there are a couple of things you may want to take into account
before you purchase SCSI hard drives for your system.</para>
<sect4>
<title> Rotational speed</title>
<para>Rotational speeds of SCSI drives sold today range from
around 4,500RPM to 10,000RPM. Most of them are either 5,400RPM
or 7,200RPM. Even though the 7,200RPM drives can generally
transfer data faster, they run considerably hotter than their
5,400RPM counterparts. A large fraction of today's disk drive
malfunctions are heat-related. If you do not have very good
cooling in your PC case, you may want to stick with 5,400RPM
or slower drives.</para>
<para>Note that newer drives, with higher areal recording
densities, can deliver much more bits per rotation than older
ones. Today's top-of-line 5,400RPM drives can sustain a
throughput comparable to 7,200RPM drives of one or two model
generations ago. The number to find on the spec sheet for
bandwidth is <quote>internal data (or transfer) rate</quote>. It is
usually in megabits/sec so divide it by 8 and you'll get the
rough approximation of how much megabytes/sec you can get out
of the drive.</para>
<para>(If you are a speed maniac and want a 10,000RPM drive for
your cute little peecee, be my guest; however, those drives
become extremely hot. Don't even think about it if you don't
have a fan blowing air <emphasis>directly at</emphasis> the
drive or a properly ventilated disk enclosure.)</para>
<para>Obviously, the latest 10,000RPM drives and 7,200RPM drives
can deliver more data than the latest 5,400RPM drives, so if
absolute bandwidth is the necessity for your applications, you
have little choice but to get the faster drives. Also, if you
need low latency, faster drives are better; not only do they
usually have lower average seek times, but also the rotational
delay is one place where slow-spinning drives can never beat a
faster one. (The average rotational latency is half the time
it takes to rotate the drive once; thus, it's 3 milliseconds
for 10,000RPM drives, 4.2ms for 7,200RPM drives and 5.6ms for
5,400RPM drives.) Latency is seek time plus rotational delay.
Make sure you understand whether you need low latency or more
accesses per second, though; in the latter case (e.g., news
servers), it may not be optimal to purchase one big fast
drive. You can achieve similar or even better results by
using the ccd (concatenated disk) driver to create a striped
disk array out of multiple slower drives for comparable
overall cost.</para>
<para>Make sure you have adequate air flow around the drive,
especially if you are going to use a fast-spinning drive. You
generally need at least 1/2" (1.25cm) of spacing above and
below a drive. Understand how the air flows through your PC
case. Most cases have the power supply suck the air out of
the back. See where the air flows in, and put the drive where
it will have the largest volume of cool air flowing around it.
You may need to seal some unwanted holes or add a new fan for
effective cooling.</para>
<para>Another consideration is noise. Many 7,200 or faster
drives generate a high-pitched whine which is quite unpleasant
to most people. That, plus the extra fans often required for
cooling, may make 7,200 or faster drives unsuitable for some
office and home environments.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title> Form factor</title>
<para>Most SCSI drives sold today are of 3.5" form factor. They
come in two different heights; 1.6" (<quote>half-height</quote>) or 1"
(<quote>low-profile</quote>). The half-height drive is the same height as a
CD-ROM drive. However, don't forget the spacing rule
mentioned in the previous section. If you have three standard
3.5" drive bays, you will not be able to put three half-height
drives in there (without frying them, that is).</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title> Interface</title>
<para>The majority of SCSI hard drives sold today are Ultra or
Ultra-wide SCSI. The maximum bandwidth of Ultra SCSI is
20MB/sec, and Ultra-wide SCSI is 40MB/sec. There is no
difference in max cable length between Ultra and Ultra-wide;
however, the more devices you have on the same bus, the sooner
you will start having bus integrity problems. Unless you have
a well-designed disk enclosure, it is not easy to make more
than 5 or 6 Ultra SCSI drives work on a single bus.</para>
<para>On the other hand, if you need to connect many drives,
going for Fast-wide SCSI may not be a bad idea. That will
have the same max bandwidth as Ultra (narrow) SCSI, while
electronically it's much easier to get it <quote>right</quote>. My advice
would be: if you want to connect many disks, get wide SCSI
drives; they usually cost a little more but it may save you
down the road. (Besides, if you can't afford the cost
difference, you shouldn't be building a disk array.)</para>
<para>There are two variant of wide SCSI drives; 68-pin and
80-pin SCA (Single Connector Attach). The SCA drives don't
have a separate 4-pin power connector, and also read the SCSI
ID settings through the 80-pin connector. If you are really
serious about building a large storage system, get SCA drives
and a good SCA enclosure (dual power supply with at least one
extra fan). They are more electronically sound than 68-pin
counterparts because there is no <quote>stub</quote> of the SCSI bus inside
the disk canister as in arrays built from 68-pin drives. They
are easier to install too (you just need to screw the drive in
the canister, instead of trying to squeeze in your fingers in
a tight place to hook up all the little cables (like the SCSI
ID and disk activity LED lines).
</para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>* IDE hard drives</title>
<para></para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title> Tape drives</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.jmb;.<!-- <br> -->2 July
1996.</emphasis></para>
<sect3>
<title> General tape access commands</title>
<para><citerefentry><refentrytitle>mt</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> provides generic access to the tape
drives. Some of the more common commands are <emphasis
remap=tt>rewind</emphasis>, <emphasis
remap=tt>erase</emphasis>, and <emphasis
remap=tt>status</emphasis>. See the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mt</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>
manual page for a detailed description.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title> Controller Interfaces</title>
<para>There are several different interfaces that support tape
drives. The interfaces are SCSI, IDE, Floppy and Parallel Port.
A wide variety of tape drives are available for these
interfaces. Controllers are discussed in
<xref linkend="hw-storage-controllers" remap="Disk/tape
controllers"></para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title> SCSI drives</title>
<para>The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>st</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> driver provides
support for 8mm (Exabyte), 4mm (DAT: Digital Audio Tape), QIC
(Quarter-Inch Cartridge), DLT (Digital Linear Tape), QIC
Minicartridge and 9-track (remember the big reels that you see
spinning in Hollywood computer rooms) tape drives. See the
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>st</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> manual page for a detailed
description. </para>
<para>The drives listed below are currently being used by members
of the FreeBSD community. They are not the only drives that
will work with FreeBSD. They just happen to be the ones that we
use.</para>
<sect4>
<title> 4mm (DAT: Digital Audio Tape)</title>
<para><xref linkend="hw-storage-python" remap="Archive
Python"></para>
<para><xref linkend="hw-storage-hp1533a" remap="HP
C1533A"></para>
<para><xref linkend="hw-storage-hp1534a" remap="HP
C1534A"></para>
<para><xref linkend="hw-storage-hp35450a" remap="HP
35450A"></para>
<para><xref linkend="hw-storage-hp35470a" remap="HP
35470A"></para>
<para><xref linkend="hw-storage-hp35480a" remap="HP
35480A"></para>
<para><xref linkend="hw-storage-sdt5000"
remap="SDT-5000"></para>
<para><xref linkend="hw-storage-wangtek6200" remap="Wangtek
6200"></para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title> 8mm (Exabyte)</title>
<para><xref linkend="hw-storage-exb8200"
remap="EXB-8200"></para>
<para><xref linkend="hw-storage-exb8500"
remap="EXB-8500"></para>
<para><xref linkend="hw-storage-exb8505"
remap="EXB-8505"></para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title> QIC (Quarter-Inch Cartridge)</title>
<para><xref linkend="hw-storage-anaconda" remap="Archive
Ananconda 2750"></para>
<para><xref linkend="hw-storage-viper60" remap="Archive Viper
60"></para>
<para><xref linkend="hw-storage-viper150" remap="Archive Viper
150"></para>
<para><xref linkend="hw-storage-viper2525" remap="Archive Viper
2525"></para>
<para><xref linkend="hw-storage-tandberg3600" remap="Tandberg
TDC 3600"></para>
<para><xref linkend="hw-storage-tandberg3620" remap="Tandberg
TDC 3620"></para>
<para><xref linkend="hw-storage-tandberg4222" remap="Tandberg
TDC 4222"></para>
<para><xref linkend="hw-storage-wangtek5525es" remap="Wangtek
5525ES"></para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title> DLT (Digital Linear Tape)</title>
<para><xref linkend="hw-storage-dectz87" remap="Digital
TZ87"></para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title> Mini-Cartridge</title>
<para><xref linkend="hw-storage-ctms3200" remap="Conner CTMS
3200"></para>
<para><xref linkend="hw-storage-exb2501" remap="Exabyte
2501"></para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title> Autoloaders/Changers</title>
<para><xref linkend="hw-storage-hp1553a" remap="Hewlett-Packard
HP C1553A Autoloading DDS2"></para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>* IDE drives</title>
<para></para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title> Floppy drives</title>
<para><xref linkend="hw-storage-conner420r" remap="Conner
420R"></para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>* Parallel port drives</title>
<para></para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title> Detailed Information </title>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-anaconda">
<title>
Archive Anaconda 2750</title>
<para>The boot message identifier for this drive is "ARCHIVE
ANCDA 2750 28077 -003 type 1 removable SCSI 2"</para>
<para>This is a QIC tape drive.</para>
<para>Native capacity is 1.35GB when using QIC-1350 tapes. This
drive will read and write QIC-150 (DC6150), QIC-250 (DC6250),
and QIC-525 (DC6525) tapes as well.</para>
<para>Data transfer rate is 350kB/s using
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>dump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>. Rates of 530kB/s have been
reported when using <xref
linkend="hw-storage-amanda" remap="Amanda"></para>
<para>Production of this drive has been discontinued.</para>
<para>The SCSI bus connector on this tape drive is reversed from
that on most other SCSI devices. Make sure that you have
enough SCSI cable to twist the cable one-half turn before and
after the Archive Anaconda tape drive, or turn your other SCSI
devices upside-down.</para>
<para>Two kernel code changes are required to use this drive.
This drive will not work as delivered.</para>
<para>If you have a SCSI-2 controller, short jumper 6.
Otherwise, the drive behaves are a SCSI-1 device. When
operating as a SCSI-1 device, this drive, <quote>locks</quote> the SCSI bus
during some tape operations, including: fsf, rewind, and
rewoffl.</para>
<para>If you are using the NCR SCSI controllers, patch the file
<filename>/usr/src/sys/pci/ncr.c</filename> (as shown below).
Build and install a new kernel.</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>*** 4831,4835 **** }; ! if
(np-&gt;latetime&gt;4) { /* ** Although we tried to
wake it up, --- 4831,4836 ---- }; ! if
(np-&gt;latetime&gt;1200) { /* ** Although we tried
to wake it up,
</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Reported by: &a.jmb;</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-python">
<title>
Archive Python</title>
<para>The boot message identifier for this drive is "ARCHIVE
Python 28454-XXX4ASB" "type 1 removable SCSI 2" "density code
0x8c, 512-byte blocks"</para>
<para>This is a DDS-1 tape drive.</para>
<para>Native capacity is 2.5GB on 90m tapes.</para>
<para>Data transfer rate is XXX.</para>
<para>This drive was repackaged by Sun Microsystems as model
411.</para>
<para>Reported by: Bob Bishop rb@gid.co.uk</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-viper60">
<title>
Archive Viper 60</title>
<para>The boot message identifier for this drive is "ARCHIVE
VIPER 60 21116 -007" "type 1 removable SCSI 1"</para>
<para>This is a QIC tape drive.</para>
<para>Native capacity is 60MB.</para>
<para>Data transfer rate is XXX.</para>
<para>Production of this drive has been discontinued.</para>
<para>Reported by: Philippe Regnauld regnauld@hsc.fr</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-viper150">
<title>
Archive Viper 150</title>
<para>The boot message identifier for this drive is <literal>ARCHIVE
VIPER 150 21531 -004</literal> <literal>Archive Viper 150 is a known rogue</literal>
<literal>type 1 removable SCSI 1</literal>. A multitude of firmware revisions
exist for this drive. Your drive may report different numbers
(e.g <literal>21247 -005</literal>.</para>
<para>This is a QIC tape drive.</para>
<para>Native capacity is 150/250MB. Both 150MB (DC6150) and
250MB (DC6250) tapes have the recording format. The 250MB
tapes are approximately 67% longer than the 150MB tapes. This
drive can read 120MB tapes as well. It can not write 120MB
tapes.</para>
<para>Data transfer rate is 100kB/s</para>
<para>This drive reads and writes DC6150 (150MB) and DC6250
(250MB) tapes.</para>
<para>This drives quirks are known and pre-compiled into the
scsi tape device driver (<citerefentry><refentrytitle>st</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>).</para>
<para>Under FreeBSD 2.2-current, use <emphasis remap=tt>mt
blocksize 512</emphasis> to set the blocksize. (The
particular drive had firmware revision 21247 -005. Other
firmware revisions may behave differently) Previous versions
of FreeBSD did not have this problem.</para>
<para>Production of this drive has been discontinued.</para>
<para>Reported by: Pedro A M Vazquez
vazquez@IQM.Unicamp.BR</para>
<para> Mike Smith
msmith@atrad.adelaide.edu.au</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-viper2525">
<title>
Archive Viper 2525</title>
<para>The boot message identifier for this drive is <literal>ARCHIVE
VIPER 2525 25462 -011</literal> <literal>type 1 removable SCSI 1</literal></para>
<para>This is a QIC tape drive.</para>
<para>Native capacity is 525MB.</para>
<para>Data transfer rate is 180kB/s at 90 inches/sec.</para>
<para>The drive reads QIC-525, QIC-150, QIC-120 and QIC-24
tapes. Writes QIC-525, QIC-150, and QIC-120.</para>
<para>Firmware revisions prior to <literal>25462 -011</literal> are bug ridden
and will not function properly.</para>
<para>Production of this drive has been discontinued.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-conner420r">
<title>
Conner 420R</title>
<para>The boot message identifier for this drive is <literal>Conner
tape</literal>.</para>
<para>This is a floppy controller, minicartridge tape
drive.</para>
<para>Native capacity is XXXX</para>
<para>Data transfer rate is XXX</para>
<para>The drive uses QIC-80 tape cartridges.</para>
<para>Reported by: Mark Hannon mark@seeware.DIALix.oz.au</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-ctms3200">
<title>
Conner CTMS 3200</title>
<para>The boot message identifier for this drive is <literal>CONNER CTMS
3200 7.00</literal> <literal>type 1 removable SCSI 2</literal>.</para>
<para>This is a minicartridge tape drive.</para>
<para>Native capacity is XXXX</para>
<para>Data transfer rate is XXX</para>
<para>The drive uses QIC-3080 tape cartridges.</para>
<para>Reported by: Thomas S. Traylor tst@titan.cs.mci.com</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-dectz87">
<title>
<ulink
URL="http://www.digital.com/info/Customer-Update/931206004.txt.html">DEC TZ87</ulink></title>
<para>The boot message identifier for this drive is <literal>DEC TZ87
(C) DEC 9206</literal> <literal>type 1 removable SCSI 2</literal> <literal>density code
0x19</literal></para>
<para>This is a DLT tape drive.</para>
<para>Native capacity is 10GB.</para>
<para>This drive supports hardware data compression.</para>
<para>Data transfer rate is 1.2MB/s.</para>
<para>This drive is identical to the Quantum DLT2000. The drive
firmware can be set to emulate several well-known drives,
including an Exabyte 8mm drive.</para>
<para>Reported by: &a.wilko;</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-exb2501">
<title>
<ulink
URL="http://www.Exabyte.COM:80/Products/Minicartridge/2501/Rfeatures.html">Exabyte EXB-2501</ulink></title>
<para>The boot message identifier for this drive is <literal>EXABYTE
EXB-2501</literal></para>
<para>This is a mini-cartridge tape drive.</para>
<para>Native capacity is 1GB when using MC3000XL
minicartridges.</para>
<para>Data transfer rate is XXX</para>
<para>This drive can read and write DC2300 (550MB), DC2750
(750MB), MC3000 (750MB), and MC3000XL (1GB)
minicartridges.</para>
<para>WARNING: This drive does not meet the SCSI-2
specifications. The drive locks up completely in response to
a SCSI MODE_SELECT command unless there is a formatted tape in
the drive. Before using this drive, set the tape blocksize
with</para>
<para>
<literallayout>mt -f /dev/st0ctl.0 blocksize
1024</literallayout>
</para>
<para>Before using a minicartridge for the first time, the
minicartridge must be formated. FreeBSD 2.1.0-RELEASE and
earlier:</para>
<para>
<literallayout>/sbin/scsi -f /dev/rst0.ctl -s 600 -c "4 0 0 0
0 0"</literallayout>
</para>
<para>(Alternatively, fetch a copy of the <command>scsiformat</command> shell script from FreeBSD
2.1.5/2.2.) FreeBSD 2.1.5 and later:</para>
<para>
<literallayout>/sbin/scsiformat -q -w
/dev/rst0.ctl</literallayout>
</para>
<para>Right now, this drive cannot really be recommended for
FreeBSD.</para>
<para>Reported by: Bob Beaulieu ez@eztravel.com</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-exb8200">
<title> Exabyte EXB-8200</title>
<para>The boot message identifier for this drive is <literal>EXABYTE
EXB-8200 252X</literal> <literal>type 1 removable SCSI 1</literal></para>
<para>This is an 8mm tape drive.</para>
<para>Native capacity is 2.3GB. </para>
<para>Data transfer rate is 270kB/s.</para>
<para>This drive is fairly slow in responding to the SCSI bus
during boot. A custom kernel may be required (set SCSI_DELAY
to 10 seconds). </para>
<para>There are a large number of firmware configurations for
this drive, some have been customized to a particular vendor's
hardware. The firmware can be changed via EPROM
replacement.</para>
<para>Production of this drive has been discontinued.</para>
<para>Reported by: Mike Smith
msmith@atrad.adelaide.edu.au</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-exb8500">
<title>
Exabyte EXB-8500</title>
<para>The boot message identifier for this drive is <literal>EXABYTE
EXB-8500-85Qanx0 0415</literal> <literal>type 1 removable SCSI 2</literal></para>
<para>This is an 8mm tape drive.</para>
<para>Native capacity is 5GB. </para>
<para>Data transfer rate is 300kB/s.</para>
<para>Reported by: Greg Lehey grog@lemis.de</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-exb8505">
<title>
<ulink
URL="http://www.Exabyte.COM:80/Products/8mm/8505XL/Rfeatures.html">Exabyte EXB-8505</ulink></title>
<para>The boot message identifier for this drive is <literal>EXABYTE
EXB-85058SQANXR1 05B0</literal> <literal>type 1 removable SCSI 2</literal></para>
<para>This is an 8mm tape drive which supports compression, and
is upward compatible with the EXB-5200 and EXB-8500.</para>
<para>Native capacity is 5GB. </para>
<para>The drive supports hardware data compression.</para>
<para>Data transfer rate is 300kB/s.</para>
<para>Reported by: Glen Foster gfoster@gfoster.com</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-hp1533a">
<title>
Hewlett-Packard HP C1533A</title>
<para>The boot message identifier for this drive is <literal>HP C1533A
9503</literal> <literal>type 1 removable SCSI 2</literal>.</para>
<para>This is a DDS-2 tape drive. DDS-2 means hardware data
compression and narrower tracks for increased data
capacity.</para>
<para>Native capacity is 4GB when using 120m tapes. This drive
supports hardware data compression.</para>
<para>Data transfer rate is 510kB/s.</para>
<para>This drive is used in Hewlett-Packard's SureStore 6000eU
and 6000i tape drives and C1533A DDS-2 DAT drive.</para>
<para>The drive has a block of 8 dip switches. The proper
settings for FreeBSD are: 1 ON; 2 ON; 3 OFF; 4 ON; 5 ON; 6 ON;
7 ON; 8 ON.
<informalexample>
<screen>switch 1 2 Result ON ON
Compression enabled at power-on, with host control ON
OFF Compression enabled at power-on, no host control OFF
ON Compression disabled at power-on; the host is allowed
to control compression OFF OFF Compression disabled
at power-on, no host control</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Switch 3 controls MRS (Media Recognition System). MRS
tapes have stripes on the transparent leader. These identify
the tape as DDS (Digital Data Storage) grade media. Tapes
that do not have the stripes will be treated as
write-protected. Switch 3 OFF enables MRS. Switch 3 ON
disables MRS.</para>
<para>See <ulink URL="http://www.hp.com/tape/c_intro.html">HP
SureStore Tape Products</ulink> and <ulink
URL="http://www.impediment.com/hp/hp_technical.html">Hewlett-Packard Disk and Tape Technical Information</ulink> for more information on configuring this drive.</para>
<para><emphasis>Warning:</emphasis> Quality control on these
drives varies greatly. One FreeBSD core-team member has
returned 2 of these drives. Neither lasted more than 5
months.</para>
<para>Reported by: &a.se;</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-hp1534a">
<title>
Hewlett-Packard HP 1534A</title>
<para>The boot message identifier for this drive is <literal>HP HP35470A
T503</literal> <literal>type 1 removable SCSI 2</literal> <literal>Sequential-Access density code
0x13, variable blocks</literal>.</para>
<para>This is a DDS-1 tape drive. DDS-1 is the original DAT
tape format.</para>
<para>Native capacity is 2GB when using 90m tapes.</para>
<para>Data transfer rate is 183kB/s.</para>
<para>The same mechanism is used in Hewlett-Packard's SureStore
<ulink
URL="http://www.dmo.hp.com/tape/sst2000.htm">2000i</ulink>
tape drive, C35470A DDS format DAT drive, C1534A DDS format
DAT drive and HP C1536A DDS format DAT drive.</para>
<para>The HP C1534A DDS format DAT drive has two indicator
lights, one green and one amber. The green one indicates tape
action: slow flash during load, steady when loaded, fast flash
during read/write operations. The amber one indicates
warnings: slow flash when cleaning is required or tape is
nearing the end of its useful life, steady indicates an hard
fault. (factory service required?)</para>
<para>Reported by Gary Crutcher gcrutchr@nightflight.com</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-hp1553a">
<title>
Hewlett-Packard HP C1553A Autoloading DDS2</title>
<para>The boot message identifier for this drive is "".</para>
<para>This is a DDS-2 tape drive with a tape changer. DDS-2
means hardware data compression and narrower tracks for
increased data capacity.</para>
<para>Native capacity is 24GB when using 120m tapes. This drive
supports hardware data compression.</para>
<para>Data transfer rate is 510kB/s (native).</para>
<para>This drive is used in Hewlett-Packard's SureStore <ulink
URL="http://www.dmo.hp.com/tape/sst12000.htm">12000e</ulink>
tape drive.</para>
<para>The drive has two selectors on the rear panel. The
selector closer to the fan is SCSI id. The other selector
should be set to 7.</para>
<para>There are four internal switches. These should be set: 1
ON; 2 ON; 3 ON; 4 OFF.</para>
<para>At present the kernel drivers do not automatically change
tapes at the end of a volume. This shell script can be used
to change tapes:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>#!/bin/sh PATH="/sbin:/usr/sbin:/bin:/usr/bin";
export PATH usage() { echo "Usage: dds_changer [123456ne]
raw-device-name echo "1..6 = Select cartridge" echo "next
cartridge" echo "eject magazine" exit 2 } if [ $# -ne 2 ]
; then usage fi cdb3=0 cdb4=0 cdb5=0 case $1 in [123456])
cdb3=$1 cdb4=1 ;; n) ;; e) cdb5=0x80 ;; ?) usage ;; esac
scsi -f $2 -s 100 -c "1b 0 0 $cdb3 $cdb4 $cdb5"</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-hp35450a">
<title>
Hewlett-Packard HP 35450A</title>
<para>The boot message identifier for this drive is <literal>HP HP35450A
-A C620</literal> <literal>type 1 removable SCSI 2</literal> <literal>Sequential-Access density
code 0x13</literal></para>
<para>This is a DDS-1 tape drive. DDS-1 is the original DAT
tape format.</para>
<para>Native capacity is 1.2GB.</para>
<para>Data transfer rate is 160kB/s.</para>
<para>Reported by: mark thompson
mark.a.thompson@pobox.com</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-hp35470a">
<title>
Hewlett-Packard HP 35470A</title>
<para>The boot message identifier for this drive is <literal>HP HP35470A
9 09</literal> <literal>type 1 removable SCSI 2</literal></para>
<para>This is a DDS-1 tape drive. DDS-1 is the original DAT
tape format.</para>
<para>Native capacity is 2GB when using 90m tapes.</para>
<para>Data transfer rate is 183kB/s.</para>
<para>The same mechanism is used in Hewlett-Packard's SureStore
<ulink
URL="http://www.dmo.hp.com/tape/sst2000.htm">2000i</ulink>
tape drive, C35470A DDS format DAT drive, C1534A DDS format
DAT drive, and HP C1536A DDS format DAT drive.</para>
<para><emphasis>Warning:</emphasis> Quality control on these
drives varies greatly. One FreeBSD core-team member has
returned 5 of these drives. None lasted more than 9
months.</para>
<para>Reported by: David Dawes dawes@rf900.physics.usyd.edu.au
(9 09)</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-hp35480a">
<title>
Hewlett-Packard HP 35480A</title>
<para>The boot message identifier for this drive is <literal>HP HP35480A
1009</literal> <literal>type 1 removable SCSI 2</literal> <literal>Sequential-Access density
code 0x13</literal>.</para>
<para>This is a DDS-DC tape drive. DDS-DC is DDS-1 with
hardware data compression. DDS-1 is the original DAT tape
format.</para>
<para>Native capacity is 2GB when using 90m tapes. It cannot
handle 120m tapes. This drive supports hardware data
compression. Please refer to the section on <xref
linkend="hw-storage-hp1533a" remap="HP
C1533A"> for the proper switch settings.</para>
<para>Data transfer rate is 183kB/s.</para>
<para>This drive is used in Hewlett-Packard's SureStore <ulink
URL="http://www.dmo.hp.com/tape/sst5000.htm">5000eU</ulink>
and <ulink
URL="http://www.dmo.hp.com/tape/sst5000.htm">5000i</ulink>
tape drives and C35480A DDS format DAT drive..</para>
<para>This drive will occasionally hang during a tape eject
operation (<command>mt offline</command>).
Pressing the front panel button will eject the tape and bring
the tape drive back to life.</para>
<para>WARNING: HP 35480-03110 only. On at least two occasions
this tape drive when used with FreeBSD 2.1.0, an IBM Server
320 and an 2940W SCSI controller resulted in all SCSI disk
partitions being lost. The problem has not be analyzed or
resolved at this time.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-sdt5000">
<title>
<ulink
URL="http://www.sel.sony.com/SEL/ccpg/storage/tape/t5000.html">Sony SDT-5000</ulink></title>
<para>There are at least two significantly different models: one
is a DDS-1 and the other DDS-2. The DDS-1 version is
<literal>SDT-5000 3.02</literal>. The DDS-2 version is <literal>SONY SDT-5000 327M</literal>.
The DDS-2 version has a 1MB cache. This cache is able to keep
the tape streaming in almost any circumstances. </para>
<para>The boot message identifier for this drive is <literal>SONY
SDT-5000 3.02</literal> <literal>type 1 removable SCSI 2</literal> <literal>Sequential-Access
density code 0x13</literal></para>
<para>Native capacity is 4GB when using 120m tapes. This drive
supports hardware data compression.</para>
<para>Data transfer rate is depends upon the model or the drive.
The rate is 630kB/s for the <literal>SONY SDT-5000 327M</literal> while
compressing the data. For the <literal>SONY SDT-5000 3.02</literal>, the data
transfer rate is 225kB/s.</para>
<para>In order to get this drive to stream, set the blocksize to
512 bytes (<command>mt blocksize 512</command>)
reported by Kenneth Merry
ken@ulc199.residence.gatech.edu</para>
<para><literal>SONY SDT-5000 327M</literal> information reported by Charles
Henrich henrich@msu.edu</para>
<para>Reported by: &a.jmz;</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-tandberg3600">
<title>
Tandberg TDC 3600</title>
<para>The boot message identifier for this drive is <literal>TANDBERG
TDC 3600 =08:</literal> <literal>type 1 removable SCSI 2</literal></para>
<para>This is a QIC tape drive.</para>
<para>Native capacity is 150/250MB.</para>
<para>This drive has quirks which are known and work around code
is present in the scsi tape device driver (<citerefentry><refentrytitle>st</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>). Upgrading the firmware to XXX
version will fix the quirks and provide SCSI 2
capabilities.</para>
<para>Data transfer rate is 80kB/s.</para>
<para>IBM and Emerald units will not work. Replacing the
firmware EPROM of these units will solve the problem.</para>
<para>Reported by: Michael Smith
msmith@atrad.adelaide.edu.au</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-tandberg3620">
<title>
Tandberg TDC 3620</title>
<para>This is very similar to the <xref
linkend="hw-storage-tandberg3600" remap="Tandberg TDC 3600">
drive.</para>
<para>Reported by: &a.joerg;</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-tandberg4222">
<title>
Tandberg TDC 4222</title>
<para>The boot message identifier for this drive is <literal>TANDBERG
TDC 4222 =07</literal> <literal>type 1 removable SCSI 2</literal></para>
<para>This is a QIC tape drive.</para>
<para>Native capacity is 2.5GB. The drive will read all
cartridges from the 60 MB (DC600A) upwards, and write 150 MB
(DC6150) upwards. Hardware compression is optionally
supported for the 2.5 GB cartridges.</para>
<para>This drives quirks are known and pre-compiled into the
scsi tape device driver (<citerefentry><refentrytitle>st</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>)
beginning with FreeBSD 2.2-current. For previous versions of
FreeBSD, use <command>mt</command> to read one
block from the tape, rewind the tape, and then execute the
backup program (<command>mt fsr 1; mt rewind; dump
...</command>)</para>
<para>Data transfer rate is 600kB/s (vendor claim with
compression), 350 KB/s can even be reached in start/stop mode.
The rate decreases for smaller cartridges.</para>
<para>Reported by: &a.joerg;</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-wangtek5525es">
<title>
Wangtek 5525ES</title>
<para>The boot message identifier for this drive is <literal>WANGTEK
5525ES SCSI REV7 3R1</literal> <literal>type 1 removable SCSI 1</literal> <literal>density code
0x11, 1024-byte blocks</literal></para>
<para>This is a QIC tape drive.</para>
<para>Native capacity is 525MB.</para>
<para>Data transfer rate is 180kB/s.</para>
<para>The drive reads 60, 120, 150, and 525MB tapes. The drive
will not write 60MB (DC600 cartridge) tapes. In order to
overwrite 120 and 150 tapes reliably, first erase (<command>mt erase</command>) the tape. 120 and 150 tapes
used a wider track (fewer tracks per tape) than 525MB tapes.
The <quote>extra</quote> width of the previous tracks is not overwritten,
as a result the new data lies in a band surrounded on both
sides by the previous data unless the tape have been
erased.</para>
<para>This drives quirks are known and pre-compiled into the
scsi tape device driver (<citerefentry><refentrytitle>st</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>).</para>
<para>Other firmware revisions that are known to work are:
M75D</para>
<para>Reported by: Marc van Kempen marc@bowtie.nl <literal>REV73R1</literal>
Andrew Gordon Andrew.Gordon@net-tel.co.uk <literal>M75D</literal></para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-wangtek6200">
<title>
Wangtek 6200</title>
<para>The boot message identifier for this drive is <literal>WANGTEK
6200-HS 4B18</literal> <literal>type 1 removable SCSI 2</literal> <literal>Sequential-Access
density code 0x13</literal></para>
<para>This is a DDS-1 tape drive.</para>
<para>Native capacity is 2GB using 90m tapes.</para>
<para>Data transfer rate is 150kB/s.</para>
<para>Reported by: Tony Kimball alk@Think.COM</para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>* Problem drives</title>
<para></para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title> CD-ROM drives</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.obrien;.<!-- <br> -->23 November
1997.</emphasis></para>
<para>As mentioned in
<xref linkend="hw-jordans-picks-cdrom" remap="Jordan's Picks">
Generally speaking those in <emphasis>The FreeBSD
Project</emphasis> prefer SCSI CDROM drives over IDE CDROM
drives. However not all SCSI CDROM drives are equal. Some feel
the quality of some SCSI CDROM drives have been deteriorating to
that of IDE CDROM drives. Toshiba used to be the favored
stand-by, but many on the SCSI mailing list have found displeasure
with the 12x speed XM-5701TA as its volume (when playing audio
CDROMs) is not controllable by the various audio player
software.</para>
<para>Another area where SCSI CDROM manufacturers are cutting
corners is adhearance to the
<xref linkend="scsi-further-reading" remap="SCSI specification">.
Many SCSI CDROMs will respond to
<xref linkend="scsi-rogue-devices" remap="multiple LUNs"> for its
target address. Known violators include the 6x Teac CD-56S
1.0D.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>* Other</title>
<para></para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>* Adding and reconfiguring disks</title>
<para></para>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="hw-storage-tapebackups">
<title> Tapes and backups</title>
<sect3>
<title>* What about backups to floppies?</title>
<para></para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title> Tape Media</title>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-tapebackups-4mm">
<title>
4mm (DDS: Digital Data Storage)</title>
<para>4mm tapes are replacing QIC as the workstation backup
media of choice. This trend accelerated greatly when Conner
purchased Archive, a leading manufacturer of QIC drives, and
then stopped production of QIC drives. 4mm drives are small
and quiet but do not have the reputation for reliability that
is enjoyed by 8mm drives. The cartridges are less expensive
and smaller (3 x 2 x 0.5 inches, 76 x 51 x 12 mm) than 8mm
cartridges. 4mm, like 8mm, has comparatively short head life
for the same reason, both use helical scan.</para>
<para>Data thruput on these drives starts ~150kB/s, peaking at
~500kB/s. Data capacity starts at 1.3 GB and ends at 2.0 GB.
Hardware compression, available with most of these drives,
approximately doubles the capacity. Multi-drive tape library
units can have 6 drives in a single cabinet with automatic
tape changing. Library capacities reach 240 GB.</para>
<para>4mm drives, like 8mm drives, use helical-scan. All the
benefits and drawbacks of helical-scan apply to both 4mm and
8mm drives.</para>
<para>Tapes should be retired from use after 2,000 passes or 100
full backups.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-tapebackups-8mm">
<title>
8mm (Exabyte)</title>
<para>8mm tapes are the most common SCSI tape drives; they are
the best choice of exchanging tapes. Nearly every site has an
exabyte 2 GB 8mm tape drive. 8mm drives are reliable,
convenient and quiet. Cartridges are inexpensive and small
(4.8 x 3.3 x 0.6 inches; 122 x 84 x 15 mm). One downside of
8mm tape is relatively short head and tape life due to the
high rate of relative motion of the tape across the
heads.</para>
<para>Data thruput ranges from ~250kB/s to ~500kB/s. Data sizes
start at 300 MB and go up to 7 GB. Hardware compression,
available with most of these drives, approximately doubles the
capacity. These drives are available as single units or
multi-drive tape libraries with 6 drives and 120 tapes in a
single cabinet. Tapes are changed automatically by the unit.
Library capacities reach 840+ GB.</para>
<para>Data is recorded onto the tape using helical-scan, the
heads are positioned at an angle to the media (approximately 6
degrees). The tape wraps around 270 degrees of the spool that
holds the heads. The spool spins while the tape slides over
the spool. The result is a high density of data and closely
packed tracks that angle across the tape from one edge to the
other.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-tapebackups-qic">
<title>
QIC</title>
<para>QIC-150 tapes and drives are, perhaps, the most common
tape drive and media around. QIC tape drives are the least
expensive <quote>serious</quote> backup drives. The downside is the cost
of media. QIC tapes are expensive compared to 8mm or 4mm
tapes, up to 5 times the price per GB data storage. But, if
your needs can be satisfied with a half-dozen tapes, QIC may
be the correct choice. QIC is the <emphasis>most</emphasis>
common tape drive. Every site has a QIC drive of some density
or another. Therein lies the rub, QIC has a large number of
densities on physically similar (sometimes identical) tapes.
QIC drives are not quiet. These drives audibly seek before
they begin to record data and are clearly audible whenever
reading, writing or seeking. QIC tapes measure (6 x 4 x 0.7
inches; 15.2 x 10.2 x 1.7 mm). <xref
linkend="hw-storage-tapebackups-mini"
remap="Mini-cartridges">, which also use 1/4" wide tape are
discussed separately. Tape libraries and changers are not
available.</para>
<para>Data thruput ranges from ~150kB/s to ~500kB/s. Data
capacity ranges from 40 MB to 15 GB. Hardware compression is
available on many of the newer QIC drives. QIC drives are
less frequently installed; they are being supplanted by DAT
drives.</para>
<para>Data is recorded onto the tape in tracks. The tracks run
along the long axis of the tape media from one end to the
other. The number of tracks, and therefore the width of a
track, varies with the tape's capacity. Most if not all newer
drives provide backward-compatibility at least for reading
(but often also for writing). QIC has a good reputation
regarding the safety of the data (the mechanics are simpler
and more robust than for helical scan drives).</para>
<para>Tapes should be retired from use after 5,000
backups.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-tapebackups-mini">
<title>
* Mini-Cartridge</title>
<para></para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-tapebackups-dlt">
<title>
DLT</title>
<para>DLT has the fastest data transfer rate of all the drive
types listed here. The 1/2" (12.5mm) tape is contained in a
single spool cartridge (4 x 4 x 1 inches; 100 x 100 x 25 mm).
The cartridge has a swinging gate along one entire side of the
cartridge. The drive mechanism opens this gate to extract the
tape leader. The tape leader has an oval hole in it which the
drive uses to <quote>hook</quote> the tape. The take-up spool is located
inside the tape drive. All the other tape cartridges listed
here (9 track tapes are the only exception) have both the
supply and take-up spools located inside the tape cartridge
itself.</para>
<para>Data thruput is approximately 1.5MB/s, three times the
thruput of 4mm, 8mm, or QIC tape drives. Data capacities
range from 10GB to 20GB for a single drive. Drives are
available in both multi-tape changers and multi-tape,
multi-drive tape libraries containing from 5 to 900 tapes over
1 to 20 drives, providing from 50GB to 9TB of storage.</para>
<para>Data is recorded onto the tape in tracks parallel to the
direction of travel (just like QIC tapes). Two tracks are
written at once. Read/write head lifetimes are relatively
long; once the tape stops moving, there is no relative motion
between the heads and the tape.</para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title> Using a new tape for the first time</title>
<para>The first time that you try to read or write a new,
completely blank tape, the operation will fail. The console
messages should be similar to:
<informalexample>
<screen> st0(ncr1:4:0): NOT READY asc:4,1
st0(ncr1:4:0): Logical unit is in process of becoming
ready</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>The tape does not contain an Identifier Block (block number
0). All QIC tape drives since the adoption of QIC-525 standard
write an Identifier Block to the tape. There are two solutions:
</para>
<para><command>mt fsf 1</command> causes the tape drive
to write an Identifier Block to the tape.</para>
<para>Use the front panel button to eject the tape.</para>
<para>Re-insert the tape and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> data to
the tape.</para>
<para><citerefentry><refentrytitle>dump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> will report <emphasis
remap=tt>DUMP: End of tape detected</emphasis> and the console
will show: <emphasis remap=tt>HARDWARE FAILURE info:280
asc:80,96</emphasis></para>
<para>rewind the tape using: <command>mt
rewind</command></para>
<para>Subsequent tape operations are successful.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title> Backup Programs</title>
<para>The three major programs are <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>,
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>tar</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, and
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>cpio</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
<sect4>
<title> Dump and Restore</title>
<para><citerefentry><refentrytitle>dump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>restore</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> are the traditional Unix backup
programs. They operate on the drive as a collection of disk
blocks, below the abstractions of files, links and directories
that are created by the filesystems.
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>dump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> backs up devices, entire
filesystems, not parts of a filesystem and not directory trees
that span more than one filesystem, using either soft links
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ln</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> or mounting one filesystem onto
another. <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> does not write files and
directories to tape, but rather writes the data blocks that
are the building blocks of files and directories.
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>dump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> has quirks that remain from its
early days in Version 6 of ATT Unix (circa 1975). The default
parameters are suitable for 9-track tapes (6250 bpi), not the
high-density media available today (up to 62,182 ftpi). These
defaults must be overridden on the command line to utilize the
capacity of current tape drives.</para>
<para><citerefentry><refentrytitle>rdump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>rrestore</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> backup data across the network
to a tape drive attached to another computer. Both programs
rely upon <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rcmd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>3</manvolnum></citerefentry> and
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ruserok</refentrytitle><manvolnum>3</manvolnum></citerefentry> to access the remote tape
drive. Therefore, the user performing the backup must have
<emphasis remap=tt>rhosts</emphasis> access to the remote
computer. The arguments to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rdump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>rrestore</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> must suitable to use on the
remote computer. (e.g. When <command>rdump</command>'ing from a FreeBSD computer to an
Exabyte tape drive connected to a Sun called komodo, use:
<command>/sbin/rdump 0dsbfu 54000 13000 126
komodo:/dev/nrst8 /dev/rsd0a 2&gt;&amp;1</command>) Beware:
there are security implications to allowing <emphasis
remap=tt>rhosts</emphasis> commands. Evaluate your
situation carefully.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title> Tar</title>
<para><citerefentry><refentrytitle>tar</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> also dates back to Version 6 of
ATT Unix (circa 1975). <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tar</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> operates in
cooperation with the filesystem; <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tar</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>
writes files and directories to tape.
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>tar</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> does not support the full range of
options that are available from <citerefentry><refentrytitle>cpio</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>,
but <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tar</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> does not require the unusual
command pipeline that <citerefentry><refentrytitle>cpio</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> uses.
</para>
<para>Most versions of <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tar</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> do not support
backups across the network. The GNU version of
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>tar</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, which FreeBSD utilizes, supports
remote devices using the same syntax as <command>rdump</command>. To <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tar</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> to
an Exabyte tape drive connected to a Sun called komodo, use:
<command>/usr/bin/tar cf komodo:/dev/nrst8 .
2&gt;&amp;1</command>. For versions without remote device
support, you can use a pipeline and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rsh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>
to send the data to a remote tape drive. (XXX add an example
command)</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title> Cpio</title>
<para><citerefentry><refentrytitle>cpio</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> is the original Unix file
interchange tape program for magnetic media.
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>cpio</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> has options (among many others) to
perform byte-swapping, write a number of different archives
format, and pipe the data to other programs. This last feature
makes <citerefentry><refentrytitle>cpio</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> and excellent choice for
installation media. <citerefentry><refentrytitle>cpio</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> does not know
how to walk the directory tree and a list of files must be
provided thru <acronym>STDIN</acronym>.</para>
<para><citerefentry><refentrytitle>cpio</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> does not support backups across
the network. You can use a pipeline and
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>rsh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> to send the data to a remote tape
drive. (XXX add an example command)</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title> Pax</title>
<para><citerefentry><refentrytitle>pax</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> is IEEE/POSIX's answer to
<command>tar</command> and <command>cpio</command>. Over the years the various
versions of <command>tar</command> and <command>cpio</command> have gotten slightly incompatible.
So rather than fight it out to fully standardize them, POSIX
created a new archive utility. <command>pax</command> attempts to read and write many of
the various cpio and tar formats, plus new formats of its own.
Its command set more resembles <command>cpio</command> than <command>tar</command>.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="hw-storage-amanda">
<title><ulink
URL="http://www.freebsd.org/ports/misc.html#amanda-2.2.6.5">Amanda</ulink></title>
<para>Amanda (Advanced Maryland Network Disk Archiver) is a
client/server backup system, rather than a single program. An
Amanda server will backup to a single tape drive any number of
computers that have Amanda clients and network communications
with the Amanda server. A common problem at locations with a
number of large disks is the length of time required to backup
to data directly to tape exceeds the amount of time available
for the task. Amanda solves this problem. Amanda can use a
<quote>holding disk</quote> to backup several filesystems at the same time.
Amanda creates <quote>archive sets</quote>: a group of tapes used over a
period of time to create full backups of all the filesystems
listed in Amanda's configuration file. The <quote>archive set</quote> also
contains nightly incremental (or differential) backups of all
the filesystems. Restoring a damaged filesystem requires the
most recent full backup and the incremental backups.</para>
<para>The configuration file provides fine control backups and
the network traffic that Amanda generates. Amanda will use
any of the above backup programs to write the data to tape.
Amanda is available as either a port or a package, it is not
installed by default.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title> Do nothing</title>
<para><quote>Do nothing</quote> is not a computer program, but it is the most
widely used backup strategy. There are no initial costs.
There is no backup schedule to follow. Just say no. If
something happens to your data, grin and bear it!</para>
<para>If your time and your data is worth little to nothing,
then <quote>Do nothing</quote> is the most suitable backup program for your
computer. But beware, Unix is a useful tool, you may find
that within six months you have a collection of files that are
valuable to you.</para>
<para><quote>Do nothing</quote> is the correct backup method for
<filename>/usr/obj</filename> and other directory trees that
can be exactly recreated by your computer. An example is the
files that comprise these handbook pages-they have been
generated from <abbrev>SGML</abbrev> input files. Creating
backups of these <abbrev>HTML</abbrev> files is not
necessary. The <abbrev>SGML</abbrev> source files are
backed up regularly.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title> Which Backup Program is Best?</title>
<para><citerefentry><refentrytitle>dump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> <emphasis>Period.</emphasis>
Elizabeth D. Zwicky torture tested all the backup programs
discussed here. The clear choice for preserving all your data
and all the peculiarities of Unix filesystems is
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>dump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>. Elizabeth created filesystems
containing a large variety of unusual conditions (and some not
so unusual ones) and tested each program by do a backup and
restore of that filesystems. The peculiarities included:
files with holes, files with holes and a block of nulls, files
with funny characters in their names, unreadable and
unwritable files, devices, files that change size during the
backup, files that are created/deleted during the backup and
more. She presented the results at LISA V in Oct.
1991.</para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Emergency Restore Procedure</title>
<sect4>
<title> Before the Disaster</title>
<para>There are only four steps that you need to perform in
preparation for any disaster that may occur. </para>
<para>First, print the disklabel from each of your disks
(<command>e.g. disklabel sd0 | lpr</command>), your
filesystem table (<filename>/etc/fstab</filename>) and all
boot messages, two copies of each.</para>
<para>Second, determine the boot and fixit floppies (boot.flp
and fixit.flp) have all your devices. The easiest way to
check is to reboot your machine with the boot floppy in the
floppy drive and check the boot messages. If all your devices
are listed and functional, skip on to step three.</para>
<para>Otherwise, you have to create two custom bootable floppies
which has a kernel that can mount your all of your disks and
access your tape drive. These floppies must contain:
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>fdisk</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>disklabel</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>,
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>newfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, and
whichever backup program you use. These programs must be
statically linked. If you use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, the
floppy must contain <citerefentry><refentrytitle>restore</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
<para>Third, create backup tapes regularly. Any changes that you
make after your last backup may be irretrievably lost.
Write-protect the backup tapes.</para>
<para>Fourth, test the floppies (either boot.flp and fixit.flp
or the two custom bootable floppies you made in step two.)
and backup tapes. Make notes of the procedure. Store these
notes with the bootable floppy, the printouts and the backup
tapes. You will be so distraught when restoring that the
notes may prevent you from destroying your backup tapes (How?
In place of <command>tar xvf /dev/rst0</command>, you might
accidently type <command> tar cvf /dev/rst0</command> and
over-write your backup tape).</para>
<para>For an added measure of security, make bootable floppies
and two backup tapes each time. Store one of each at a remote
location. A remote location is NOT the basement of the same
office building. A number of firms in the World Trade Center
learned this lesson the hard way. A remote location should be
physically separated from your computers and disk drives by a
significant distance.</para>
<para>An example script for creating a bootable floppy:
<informalexample>
<screen> #!/bin/sh # # create a restore floppy # # format
the floppy # PATH=/bin:/sbin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin fdformat
-q fd0 if [ $? -ne 0 ] then echo "Bad floppy, please use a
new one" exit 1 fi # place boot blocks on the floppy #
disklabel -w -B -b /usr/mdec/fdboot -s /usr/mdec/bootfd
/dev/rfd0c fd1440 # # newfs the one and only partition #
newfs -t 2 -u 18 -l 1 -c 40 -i 5120 -m 5 -o space
/dev/rfd0a # # mount the new floppy # mount /dev/fd0a /mnt
# # create required directories # mkdir /mnt/dev mkdir
/mnt/bin mkdir /mnt/sbin mkdir /mnt/etc mkdir /mnt/root
mkdir /mnt/mnt # for the root
partition mkdir /mnt/tmp mkdir /mnt/var # # populate the
directories # if [ ! -x /sys/compile/MINI/kernel ] then
cat &lt;&lt; EOM The MINI kernel does not exist, please
create one. Here is an example config file: # # MINI -- A
kernel to get FreeBSD on onto a disk. # machine
"i386" cpu "I486_CPU" ident MINI
maxusers 5 options INET
# needed for _tcp _icmpstat _ipstat # _udpstat
_tcpstat _udb options FFS
#Berkeley Fast File System options FAT_CURSOR
#block cursor in syscons or pccons options
SCSI_DELAY=15 #Be pessimistic about Joe SCSI
device options NCONS=2 #1 virtual
consoles options USERCONFIG #Allow
user configuration with -c XXX config kernel
root on sd0 swap on sd0 and sd1 dumps on sd0 controller
isa0 controller pci0 controller fdc0 at isa? port
"IO_FD1" bio irq 6 drq 2 vector fdintr disk fd0
at fdc0 drive 0 controller ncr0 controller scbus0 device
sc0 at isa? port "IO_KBD" tty irq 1 vector scintr device
npx0 at isa? port "IO_NPX" irq 13 vector npxintr
device sd0 device sd1 device
sd2 device st0 pseudo-device loop
# required by INET pseudo-device gzip # Exec
gzipped a.out's EOM exit 1 fi cp -f
/sys/compile/MINI/kernel /mnt gzip -c -best /sbin/init
&gt; /mnt/sbin/init gzip -c -best /sbin/fsck &gt;
/mnt/sbin/fsck gzip -c -best /sbin/mount &gt;
/mnt/sbin/mount gzip -c -best /sbin/halt &gt;
/mnt/sbin/halt gzip -c -best /sbin/restore &gt;
/mnt/sbin/restore gzip -c -best /bin/sh &gt; /mnt/bin/sh
gzip -c -best /bin/sync &gt; /mnt/bin/sync cp
/root/.profile /mnt/root cp -f /dev/MAKEDEV /mnt/dev chmod
755 /mnt/dev/MAKEDEV chmod 500 /mnt/sbin/init chmod 555
/mnt/sbin/fsck /mnt/sbin/mount /mnt/sbin/halt chmod 555
/mnt/bin/sh /mnt/bin/sync chmod 6555 /mnt/sbin/restore # #
create the devices nodes # cd /mnt/dev ./MAKEDEV std
./MAKEDEV sd0 ./MAKEDEV sd1 ./MAKEDEV sd2 ./MAKEDEV st0
./MAKEDEV pty0 cd / # # create minimum filesystem table #
cat &gt; /mnt/etc/fstab &lt;&lt;EOM /dev/fd0a /
ufs rw 1 1 EOM # # create minimum passwd file # cat &gt;
/mnt/etc/passwd &lt;&lt;EOM root:*:0:0:Charlie
&amp;:/root:/bin/sh EOM cat &gt; /mnt/etc/master.passwd
&lt;&lt;EOM root::0:0::0:0:Charlie &amp;:/root:/bin/sh EOM
chmod 600 /mnt/etc/master.passwd chmod 644 /mnt/etc/passwd
/usr/sbin/pwd_mkdb -d/mnt/etc /mnt/etc/master.passwd # #
umount the floppy and inform the user # /sbin/umount
/mnt</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>After the Disaster</title>
<para>The key question is: did your hardware survive? You have
been doing regular backups so there is no need to worry about
the software.</para>
<para>If the hardware has been damaged. First, replace those
parts that have been damaged.</para>
<para>If your hardware is okay, check your floppies. If you are
using a custom boot floppy, boot single-user (type <option>-s</option> at the
"boot:" prompt). Skip the following paragraph.</para>
<para>If you are using the boot.flp and fixit.flp floppies, keep
reading. Insert the boot.flp floppy in the first floppy drive
and boot the computer. The original install menu will be
displayed on the screen. Select the "Fixit--Repair mode with
CDROM or floppy." option. Insert the fixit.flp when prompted.
<command>restore</command> and the other programs
that you need are located in
<filename>/mnt2/stand</filename>.</para>
<para>Recover each filesystem separately.</para>
<para>Try to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> (e.g. <command>mount /dev/sd0a /mnt</command>) the root partition of your first disk. If
the disklabel was damaged, use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>disklabel</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
to re-partition and label the disk to match the label that
your printed and saved. Use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>newfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to
re-create the filesystems. Re-mount the root partition of the
floppy read-write (<command>mount -u -o rw /mnt</command>).
Use your backup program and backup tapes to recover the data
for this filesystem (e.g. <command>restore vrf
/dev/st0</command>). Unmount the filesystem (e.g.
<filename>umount /mnt</filename>) Repeat for each filesystem
that was damaged.</para>
<para>Once your system is running, backup your data onto new
tapes. Whatever caused the crash or data loss may strike
again. An another hour spent now, may save you from further
distress later.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>* I did not prepare for the Disaster, What Now?</title>
<para></para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="hw-other">
<title>* Other</title>
<sect2>
<title>* PCMCIA</title>
<para></para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
</chapter>
<chapter
id="l10n">
<title>Localization</title>
<sect1
id="russian">
<title>Russian Language (KOI8-R encoding)</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.ache;<!-- <br> --> 1 May
1997</emphasis>.</para>
<para>See more info about KOI8-R encoding at <ulink
URL="http://www.nagual.pp.ru/~ache/koi8.html">KOI8-R References
(Russian Net Character Set)</ulink>.</para>
<sect2
id="russian-console">
<title>Console Setup</title>
<para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Add following line to your kernel configuration file:
<literallayout>options
"SC_MOUSE_CHAR=0x03"</literallayout> to move character
codes used for mouse cursor off KOI8-R pseudographics
range.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Russian console entry in
<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> should looks like
<literallayout>keymap=ru.koi8-r keychange="61 ^[[K"
scrnmap=koi8-r2cp866 font8x16=cp866b-8x16
font8x14=cp866-8x14 font8x8=cp866-8x8</literallayout>
</para>
<note>
<para>^[ means that real ESC character must be entered into
<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>, not just ^[
string.</para>
</note>
<para>This tuning means KOI8-R keyboard with Alternative
screen font mapped to KOI8-R encoding to preserve
pseudographics, <emphasis remap=it>Gray Delete</emphasis>
key remapped to match Russian <citerefentry><refentrytitle>termcap</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> entry for FreeBSD
console.</para>
<para>RUS/LAT switch will be <emphasis
remap=bf>CapsLock</emphasis>. Old CapsLock function still
available via <emphasis remap=bf>Shift+CapsLock</emphasis>.
CapsLock LED will indicate RUS mode, not CapsLock
mode.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>For each <emphasis remap=tt>ttyv?</emphasis> entry in
<filename>/etc/ttys</filename> change terminal type from
<literal>cons25</literal> to <literal>cons25r</literal>, i.e. each entry should looks
like <literallayout>ttyv0 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"
cons25r on secure</literallayout>
</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="russian-locale">
<title>Locale Setup</title>
<para><anchor id="russian-env"> There is two environment variables
for locale setup:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><envar>LANG</envar> for POSIX
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>setlocale</refentrytitle><manvolnum>3</manvolnum></citerefentry> family functions;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><envar>MM_CHARSET</envar> for applications MIME
chararter set.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>The best way is using <filename>/etc/login.conf</filename>
<emphasis remap=tt>russian</emphasis> user's login class in
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>passwd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> entry login class
position. See <citerefentry><refentrytitle>login.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for
details.</para>
<sect3
id="russian-class">
<title>Login Class Method</title>
<para>First of all check your <filename>/etc/login.conf</filename>
have <emphasis remap=tt>russian</emphasis> login class, this
entry may looks like: <literallayout>russian:Russian Users
Accounts:\ :charset=KOI8-R:\ :lang=ru_RU.KOI8-R:\
:tc=default:</literallayout>
</para>
<sect4>
<title>How to do it with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vipw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></title>
<para>If you use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vipw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for adding new
users, <filename>/etc/master.passwd</filename> entry should
looks like:
<literallayout>user:password:1111:11:russian:0:0:User
Name:/home/user:/bin/csh</literallayout>
</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>How to do it with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>adduser</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></title>
<para>If you use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>adduser</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for adding new
users:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Set <literallayout>defaultclass =
russian</literallayout> in
<filename>/etc/adduser.conf</filename> (you must enter
<emphasis remap=tt>default</emphasis> class for all
non-Russian users in this case);<!-- <br> --><!-- <br>
-->
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Alternative variant will be answering <emphasis
remap=tt>russian</emphasis> each time when you see
<literallayout>Enter login class: default
[]:</literallayout> prompt from
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>adduser</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>;<!-- <br> --><!-- <br> -->
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Another variant: call <literallayout># adduser
-class russian</literallayout> for each Russian user
you want to add.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>How to do it with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></title>
<para>If you use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for adding new users,
call it in this form: <literallayout>&prompt.root; pw useradd user_name -L
russian</literallayout>
</para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Shell Startup Files Method</title>
<para>If you don't want to use
<xref linkend="russian-class" remap="login class method"> for
some reasons, just set this
<xref linkend="russian-env" remap="two environment variables">
in the following shell startup files:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><filename>/etc/profile</filename>:
<literallayout>LANG=ru_RU.KOI8-R; export LANG
MM_CHARSET=KOI8-R; export MM_CHARSET</literallayout>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><filename>/etc/csh.login</filename>:
<literallayout>setenv LANG ru_RU.KOI8-R setenv MM_CHARSET
KOI8-R</literallayout>
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>Alternatively you can add this instructions to
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><filename>/usr/share/skel/dot.profile</filename>:
</para>
<para>(similar to <filename>/etc/profile</filename>
above);</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><filename>/usr/share/skel/dot.login</filename>:
</para>
<para>(similar to <filename>/etc/csh.login</filename>
above).</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="russian-printer">
<title>Printer Setup</title>
<para>Since most printers with Russian characters comes with
hardware code page CP866, special output filter needed for KOI8-R
-&gt; CP866 conversion. Such filter installed by default as
<filename>/usr/libexec/lpr/ru/koi2alt</filename>. So, Russian
printer <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> entry should looks
like: <literallayout>lp|Russian local line printer:\
:sh:of=/usr/libexec/lpr/ru/koi2alt:\
:lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/output/lpd:lf=/var/log/lpd-errs:</literallayout> see <citerefentry><refentrytitle>printcap</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for detailed description.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="russian-msdosfs">
<title>MSDOS FS and Russian file names</title>
<para>Look at following example <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fstab</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> entry to enable support for Russian
file names in MSDOS FS: <literallayout>/dev/sd0s1 /dos/c
msdos rw,-W=koi2dos,-L=ru_RU.KOI8-R 0 0</literallayout> see
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount_msdos</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>for detailed description of
<option>-W</option> and <option>-L</option> options.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="russian-xwindow">
<title>X Window Setup</title>
<para>Step by step instructions:
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Do
<xref linkend="russian-locale" remap="non-X locale setup">
first as described.
</para>
<note>
<para><anchor id="russian-note">Russian KOI8-R locale may
not work with old XFree86 releases (lower than 3.3).
XFree86 port from
<filename>/usr/ports/x11/XFree86</filename> already have
most recent XFree86 version, so it will work, if you
install XFree86 from this port. XFree86 version shipped
with the latest FreeBSD distribution should work too
(check XFree86 version number not less than 3.3
first).</para>
</note>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Go to <filename>/usr/ports/russian/X.language</filename>
directory and say <literallayout>&prompt.root; make all
install</literallayout> there. This port install latest
version of KOI8-R fonts. XFree86 3.3 already have some
KOI8-R fonts, but this ones scaled better.
</para>
<para>Check find <literal>"Files"</literal> section
in your <filename>/etc/XF86Config</filename>, following
lines must be before any other <literal>FontPath</literal> entries: <literallayout>
FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/misc"
FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/75dpi"
FontPath
"/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/100dpi"</literallayout>
</para>
<para>If you use high resolution video mode, swap 75 dpi and
100 dpi lines.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>To activate Russian keyboard add <literallayout>
XkbKeymap "xfree86(ru)"</literallayout> line into
<literal>"Keyboard"</literal> section in your
<filename>/etc/XF86Config</filename>, also make sure that
<literal>XkbDisable</literal> is turned off
(commented out) there.
</para>
<para>RUS/LAT switch will be <emphasis
remap=bf>CapsLock</emphasis>. Old CapsLock function still
available via <emphasis remap=bf>Shift+CapsLock</emphasis>
(in LAT mode only).</para>
<note>
<para>Russian XKB keyboard may not work with old XFree86
versions, see <xref
linkend="russian-note" remap="locale note"> for more info.
Russian XKB keyboard may not work with non-localized
applications too, minimally localized application should
call <emphasis remap=bf>XtSetLanguageProc</emphasis>
(NULL, NULL, NULL); function early in the program.</para>
</note>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="german">
<title>German Language (ISO 8859-1)</title>
<para>Slaven Rezic <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:eserte@cs.tu-berlin.de">&lt;eserte@cs.tu-berlin.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis> wrote a tutorial how to use umlauts on a FreeBSD machine. The tutorial is written in German and available at <ulink URL="http://www.de.freebsd.org/de/umlaute/">http://www.de.freebsd.org/de/umlaute/</ulink>.
</para>
<para> </para>
</sect1>
</chapter>
</part>
<part>
<title>Network Communications</title>
<chapter>
<title>Serial Communications</title>
<sect1
id="serial">
<title>Serial Basics</title>
<para><emphasis>Assembled from FAQ.</emphasis></para>
<para>This section should give you some general information about
serial ports. If you do not find what you want here, check into the
Terminal and Dialup sections of the handbook.</para>
<para>The <filename>ttydX</filename> (or <filename>cuaaX</filename>)
device is the regular device you will want to open for your
applications. When a process opens the device, it will have a
default set of terminal I/O settings. You can see these settings
with the command <literallayout> stty -a -f /dev/ttyd1
</literallayout>
</para>
<para>When you change the settings to this device, the settings are in
effect until the device is closed. When it is reopened, it goes
back to the default set. To make changes to the default set, you
can open and adjust the settings of the <quote>initial state</quote> device.
For example, to turn on <acronym>CLOCAL</acronym> mode, 8 bits, and
<emphasis>XON/XOFF</emphasis> flow control by default for ttyd5, do:
<literallayout> stty -f /dev/ttyid5 clocal cs8 ixon ixoff
</literallayout>
</para>
<para>A good place to do this is in
<filename>/etc/rc.serial</filename>. Now, an application will have
these settings by default when it opens <filename>ttyd5</filename>.
It can still change these settings to its liking, though.</para>
<para>You can also prevent certain settings from being changed by an
application by making adjustments to the <quote>lock state</quote> device. For
example, to lock the speed of <filename>ttyd5</filename> to 57600
bps, do <literallayout> stty -f /dev/ttyld5 57600
</literallayout>
</para>
<para>Now, an application that opens <filename>ttyd5</filename> and
tries to change the speed of the port will be stuck with 57600
bps.</para>
<para>Naturally, you should make the initial state and lock state
devices writable only by <emphasis remap=tt>root</emphasis>. The
<filename>MAKEDEV</filename> script does <emphasis>NOT</emphasis> do
this when it creates the device entries.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="term">
<title>Terminals</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.kelly;<!-- <br> -->28 July
1996</emphasis></para>
<para>Terminals provide a convenient and low-cost way to access the
power of your FreeBSD system when you are not at the computer's
console or on a connected network. This section describes how to
use terminals with FreeBSD.</para>
<sect2
id="term-uses">
<title>Uses and Types of Terminals</title>
<para>The original Unix systems did not have consoles. Instead,
people logged in and ran programs through terminals that were
connected to the computer's serial ports. It is quite similar to
using a modem and some terminal software to dial into a remote
system to do text-only work.</para>
<para>Today's PCs have consoles capable of high quality graphics,
but the ability to establish a login session on a serial port
still exists in nearly every Unix-style operating system today;
FreeBSD is no exception. By using a terminal attached to a unused
serial port, you can log in and run any text program that you
would normally run on the console or in an <command>xterm</command> window in the X Window System.</para>
<para>For the business user, you can attach many terminals to a
FreeBSD system and place them on your employees' desktops. For a
home user, a spare computer such as an older IBM PC or a Macintosh
can be a terminal wired into a more powerful computer running
FreeBSD. You can turn what might otherwise be a single-user
computer into a powerful multiple user system.</para>
<para>For FreeBSD, there are three kinds of terminals:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><xref linkend="term-dumb" remap="Dumb terminals"></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><xref linkend="term-pcs" remap="PCs acting as
terminals"></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><xref linkend="term-x" remap="X terminals"></para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>The remaining subsections describe each kind.</para>
<sect3
id="term-dumb">
<title>Dumb Terminals</title>
<para>Dumb terminals are specialized pieces of hardware that let
you connect to computers over serial lines. They are called
<quote>dumb</quote> because they have only enough computational power to
display, send, and receive text. You cannot run any programs on
them. It is the computer to which you connect them that has all
the power to run text editors, compilers, email, games, and so
forth.</para>
<para>There are hundreds of kinds of dumb terminals made by many
manufacturers, including Digital Equipment Corporation's VT-100
and Wyse's WY-75. Just about any kind will work with FreeBSD.
Some high-end terminals can even display graphics, but only
certain software packages can take advantage of these advanced
features.</para>
<para>Dumb terminals are popular in work environments where
workers do not need access to graphic applications such as those
provided by the X Window System.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="term-pcs">
<title>PCs Acting As Terminals</title>
<para>If a <xref linkend="term-dumb" remap="dumb terminal"> has
just enough ability to display, send, and receive text, then
certainly any spare personal computer can be a dumb terminal.
All you need is the proper cable and some <emphasis>terminal
emulation</emphasis> software to run on the computer.</para>
<para>Such a configuration is popular in homes. For example, if
your spouse is busy working on your FreeBSD system's console,
you can do some text-only work at the same time from a less
powerful personal computer hooked up as a terminal to the
FreeBSD system.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="term-x">
<title>X Terminals</title>
<para>X terminals are the most sophisticated kind of terminal
available. Instead of connecting to a serial port, they usually
connect to a network like Ethernet. Instead of being relegated
to text-only applications, they can display any X
application.</para>
<para>We introduce X terminals just for the sake of completeness.
However, this chapter does <emphasis>not</emphasis> cover setup,
configuration, or use of X terminals.</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="term-cables-ports">
<title>Cables and Ports</title>
<para>To connect a terminal to your FreeBSD system, you need the
right kind of cable and a serial port to which to connect it. This
section tells you what to do. If you are already familiar with
your terminal and the cable it requires, skip to
<xref linkend="term-config" remap="Configuration">.</para>
<sect3
id="term-cables">
<title>Cables</title>
<para>Because terminals use serial ports, you need to use
serial---also known as RS-232C---cables to connect the terminal
to the FreeBSD system.</para>
<para>There are a couple of kinds of serial cables. Which one
you'll use depends on the terminal you want to connect:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>If you are connecting a personal computer to act as a
terminal, use a <xref linkend="term-null"
remap="null-modem"> cable. A null-modem cable connects
two computers or terminals together.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If you have an actual terminal, your best source of
information on what cable to use is the documentation that
accompanied the terminal. If you do not have the
documentation, then try a <xref linkend="term-null"
remap="null-modem"> cable. If that does not work, then
try a <xref linkend="term-std" remap="standard">
cable.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>Also, the serial port on <emphasis>both</emphasis> the
terminal and your FreeBSD system must have connectors that will
fit the cable you are using.</para>
<sect4
id="term-null">
<title>Null-modem cables</title>
<para>A null-modem cable passes some signals straight through,
like <quote>signal ground,</quote> but switches other signals. For
example, the <quote>send data</quote> pin on one end goes to the
<quote>receive data</quote> pin on the other end.</para>
<para>If you like making your own cables, here is a table
showing a recommended way to construct a null-modem cable for
use with terminals. This table shows the RS-232C signal names
and the pin numbers on a DB-25 connector.
<informalexample>
<screen> Signal Pin# Pin#
Signal TxD 2 ----------------------- 3
RxD RxD 3 ----------------------- 2 TxD
DTR 20 ----------------------- 6 DSR DSR
6 ----------------------- 20 DTR SG 7
----------------------- 7 SG DCD 8
----------------------+ 4 RTS* *RTS 4 +
+ 5 CTS* *CTS 5 +----------------------
8 DCD * Connect pins 4 to 5 internally in the
connector hood, and then to pin 8 in the remote
hood.</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="term-std">
<title>Standard RS-232C Cables</title>
<para>A standard serial cable passes all the RS-232C signals
straight-through. That is, the <quote>send data</quote> pin on one end
of the cable goes to the <quote>send data</quote> pin on the other end.
This is the type of cable to connect a modem to your FreeBSD
system, and the type of cable needed for some
terminals.</para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="term-ports">
<title>Ports</title>
<para>Serial ports are the devices through which data is
transferred between the FreeBSD host computer and the terminal.
This section describes the kinds of ports that exist and how
they are addressed in FreeBSD.</para>
<sect4
id="term-portkinds">
<title>Kinds of Ports</title>
<para>Several kinds of serial ports exist. Before you purchase
or construct a cable, you need to make sure it will fit the
ports on your terminal and on the FreeBSD system.</para>
<para>Most terminals will have DB25 ports. Personal computers,
including PCs running FreeBSD, will have DB25 or DB9 ports.
If you have a multiport serial card for your PC, you may have
RJ-12 or RJ-45 ports.</para>
<para>See the documentation that accompanied the hardware for
specifications on the kind of port in use. A visual
inspection of the port often works, too.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="term-portnames">
<title>Port Names</title>
<para>In FreeBSD, you access each serial port through an entry
in the <filename>/dev</filename> directory. There are two
different kinds of entries:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Callin ports are named
<filename>/dev/ttyd<replaceable>X</replaceable></filename> where <emphasis remap=it>X</emphasis> is the port number, starting from zero. Generally, you use the callin port for terminals. Callin ports require that the serial line assert the data carrier detect (DCD) signal to work.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Callout ports are named
<filename>/dev/cuaa<replaceable>X</replaceable></filename>. You usually do not use the callout port for terminals, just for modems. You may use the callout port if the serial cable or the terminal does not support the carrier detect signal.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>See the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sio</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> manual page for more information.</para>
<para>If you have connected a terminal to the first serial port
(COM1 in DOS parlance), then you want to use
<filename>/dev/ttyd0</filename> to refer to the terminal. If
it is on the second serial port (also known as COM2), it is
<filename>/dev/ttyd1</filename>, and so forth.</para>
<para>Note that you may have to configure your kernel to support
each serial port, especially if you have a multiport serial
card. See <xref linkend="kernelconfig"
remap="Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel"> for more
information.</para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="term-config">
<title>Configuration</title>
<para>This section describes what you need to configure on your
FreeBSD system to enable a login session on a terminal. It
assumes you have already configured your kernel to support the
serial port to which the terminal is connected---and that you have
connected it.</para>
<para>In a nutshell, you need to tell the <command>init</command> process, which is responsible for
process control and initialization, to start a <command>getty</command> process, which is responsible for
reading a login name and starting the <command>login</command> program.</para>
<para>To do so, you have to edit the <filename>/etc/ttys</filename>
file. First, use the <command>su</command> command to
become root. Then, make the following changes to
<filename>/etc/ttys</filename>:
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Add an line to <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> for the
entry in the <filename>/dev</filename> directory for the
serial port if it is not already there.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Specify that <filename>/usr/libexec/getty</filename> be
run on the port, and specify the appropriate <emphasis remap=tt>getty</emphasis> type from the
<filename>/etc/gettytab</filename> file.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Specify the default terminal type.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Set the port to <quote>on.</quote>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Specify whether the port should be <quote>secure.</quote>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Force <command>init</command> to reread the
<filename>/etc/ttys</filename> file.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
<para>As an optional step, you may wish to create a custom <emphasis remap=tt>getty</emphasis> type for use in step 2 by making an
entry in <filename>/etc/gettytab</filename>. This document does
not explain how to do so; you are encouraged to see the
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>gettytab</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> and the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>getty</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> manual pages for more
information.</para>
<para>The remaining sections detail how to do these steps. We will
use a running example throughout these sections to illustrate what
we need to do. In our example, we will connect two terminals to
the system: a Wyse-50 and a old 286 IBM PC running Procomm
terminal software emulating a VT-100 terminal. We connect the Wyse
to the second serial port and the 286 to the sixth serial port (a
port on a multiport serial card).</para>
<para>For more information on the <filename>/etc/ttys</filename>
file, see the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ttys</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> manual page.</para>
<sect3
id="term-etcttys">
<title>Adding an Entry to <filename>/etc/ttys</filename></title>
<para>First, you need to add an entry to the
<filename>/etc/ttys</filename> file, unless one is already
there.</para>
<para>The <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> file lists all of the
ports on your FreeBSD system where you want to allow logins. For
example, the first virtual console <filename>ttyv0</filename>
has an entry in this file. You can log in on the console using
this entry. This file contains entries for the other virtual
consoles, serial ports, and pseudo-ttys. For a hardwired
terminal, just list the serial port's <filename>/dev</filename>
entry without the <filename>/dev</filename> part.</para>
<para>When you installed your FreeBSD system, the
<filename>/etc/ttys</filename> file included entries for the
first four serial ports: <filename>ttyd0</filename> through
<filename>ttyd3</filename>. If you are attaching a terminal on
one of those ports, you do not need to add an entry.</para>
<para>In our example, we attached a Wyse-50 to the second serial
port, <filename>ttyd1</filename>, which is already in
the file. We need to add an entry for the 286 PC connected to
the sixth serial port. Here is an excerpt of the
<filename>/etc/ttys</filename> file after we add the new entry:
<informalexample>
<screen>ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off
secure ttyd5 </screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="term-getty">
<title>Specifying the <emphasis remap=tt>getty</emphasis>
Type</title>
<para>Next, we need to specify what program will be run to handle
the logins on a terminal. For FreeBSD, the standard program to
do that is <filename>/usr/libexec/getty</filename>. It is what
provides the <emphasis remap=tt>login:</emphasis> prompt.</para>
<para>The program <command>getty</command> takes one
(optional) parameter on its command line, the
<emphasis><emphasis remap=tt>getty</emphasis> type</emphasis>.
A <emphasis remap=tt>getty</emphasis> type tells about
characteristics on the terminal line, like bps rate and parity.
The <command>getty</command> program reads these
characteristics from the file
<filename>/etc/gettytab</filename>.</para>
<para>The file <filename>/etc/gettytab</filename> contains lots of
entries for terminal lines both old and new. In almost all
cases, the entries that start with the text <literal>std</literal> will work for hardwired terminals.
These entries ignore parity. There is a <literal>std</literal> entry for each bps rate from 110 to
115200. Of course, you can add your own entries to this file.
The manual page <citerefentry><refentrytitle>gettytab</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> provides more information.</para>
<para>When setting the <emphasis remap=tt>getty</emphasis> type in
the <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> file, make sure that the
communications settings on the terminal match.</para>
<para>For our example, the Wyse-50 uses no parity and connects at
38400 bps. The 286 PC uses no parity and connects at 19200 bps.
Here is the <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> file so far (showing
just the two terminals in which we are interested):
<informalexample>
<screen>ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" unknown off
secure ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200"</screen>
</informalexample> Note that the second field---where we specify
what program to run---appears in quotes. This is important,
otherwise the type argument to <command>getty</command> might be interpreted as the next
field.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="term-deftermtype">
<title>Specifying the Default Terminal Type</title>
<para>The third field in the <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> file
lists the default terminal type for the port. For dialup ports,
you typically put <literal>unknown</literal> or
<literal>dialup</literal> in this field because users
may dial up with practically any kind of terminal or software.
For hardwired terminals, the terminal type does not change, so
you can put a real terminal type in this field.</para>
<para>Users will usually use the <emphasis
remap=tt>tset</emphasis> program in their
<filename>.login</filename> or <filename>.profile</filename>
files to check the terminal type and prompt for one if
necessary. By setting a terminal type in the
<filename>/etc/ttys</filename> file, users can forego such
prompting.</para>
<para>To find out what terminal types FreeBSD supports, see the
file <filename>/usr/share/misc/termcap</filename>. It lists
about 600 terminal types. You can add more if you wish. See
the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>termcap</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> manual page for information.</para>
<para>In our example, the Wyse-50 is a Wyse-50 type of terminal
(although it can emulate others, we will leave it in Wyse-50
mode). The 286 PC is running Procomm which will be set to
emulate a VT-100. Here are the pertinent yet unfinished entries
from the <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> file:
<informalexample>
<screen>ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wy50 off
secure ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200"
vt100</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="term-enable">
<title>Enabling the Port</title>
<para>The next field in <filename>/etc/ttys</filename>, the fourth
field, tells whether to enable the port. Putting <literal>on</literal> here will have the <command>init</command> process start the program in the
second field, <emphasis remap=tt>getty</emphasis>, which will
prompt for a login. If you put <literal>off</literal> in the fourth field, there will be no
<command>getty</command>, and hence no logins on the
port.</para>
<para>So, naturally, you want an <literal>on</literal>
in this field. Here again is the <filename>/etc/ttys</filename>
file. We have turned each port <literal>on</literal>.
<informalexample>
<screen>ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wy50 on
secure ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" vt100
on</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="term-secure">
<title>Specifying Secure Ports</title>
<para>We have arrived at the last field (well, almost: there is an
optional <literal>window</literal> specifier, but we
will ignore that). The last field tells whether the port is
secure.</para>
<para>What does <quote>secure</quote> mean?</para>
<para>It means that the root account (or any account with a user
ID of 0) may login on the port. Insecure ports do not allow
root to login.</para>
<para>How do you use secure and insecure ports?</para>
<para>By marking a port as insecure, the terminal to which it is
connected will not allow root to login. People who know the
root password to your FreeBSD system will first have to login
using a regular user account. To gain superuser privileges,
they will then have to use the <command>su</command>
command.</para>
<para>Because of this, you will have two records to help track
down possible compromises of root privileges: both the login and
the <emphasis remap=tt>su</emphasis> command make records in the
system log (and logins are also recorded in the <emphasis
remap=tt>wtmp</emphasis> file).</para>
<para>By marking a port as secure, the terminal will allow root
in. People who know the root password will just login as root.
You will not have the potentially useful login and <command>su</command> command records.</para>
<para>Which should you use?</para>
<para>Just use <quote>insecure.</quote> Use <quote>insecure</quote>
<emphasis>even</emphasis> for terminals <emphasis>not</emphasis>
in public user areas or behind locked doors. It is quite easy
to login and use <command>su</command> if you need
superuser privileges.</para>
<para>Here finally are the completed entries in the
<filename>/etc/ttys</filename> file, with comments added to
describe where the terminals are:
<informalexample>
<screen>ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wy50 on
insecure # Kitchen ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200"
vt100 on insecure # Guest bathroom</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="term-hup">
<title>Force <command>init</command> to Reread
<filename>/etc/ttys</filename></title>
<para>When you boot FreeBSD, the first process, <command>init</command>, will read the
<filename>/etc/ttys</filename> file and start the programs
listed for each enabled port to prompt for logins.</para>
<para>After you edit <filename>/etc/ttys</filename>, you do not
want to have to reboot your system to get <command>init</command> to see the changes. So, <command>init</command> will reread
<filename>/etc/ttys</filename> if it receives a SIGHUP (hangup)
signal.</para>
<para>So, after you have saved your changes to
<filename>/etc/ttys</filename>, send SIGHUP to <command>init</command> by typing:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; kill -HUP 1</screen>
</informalexample> (The <command>init</command>
process <emphasis>always</emphasis> has process ID 1.)</para>
<para>If everything is set up correctly, all cables are in place,
and the terminals are powered up, you should see login prompts.
Your terminals are ready for their first logins!</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="term-debug">
<title>Debugging your connection</title>
<para>Even with the most meticulous attention to detail, something
could still go wrong while setting up a terminal. Here is a list
of symptoms and some suggested fixes.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>No login prompt appears</term>
<listitem>
<para>Make sure the terminal is plugged in and powered up.
If it is a personal computer acting as a terminal, make
sure it is running terminal emulation software on the
correct serial port.</para>
<para>Make sure the cable is connected firmly to both the
terminal and the FreeBSD computer. Make sure it is the
right kind of cable.</para>
<para>Make sure the terminal and FreeBSD agree on the bps
rate and parity settings. If you have a video display
terminal, make sure the contrast and brightness controls
are turned up. If it is a printing terminal, make sure
paper and ink are in good supply.</para>
<para>Make sure that a <command>getty</command>
process is running and serving the terminal. Type
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; ps -axww|grep getty</screen>
</informalexample> to get a list of running <command>getty</command> processes. You should see an
entry for the terminal. For example, the display
<informalexample>
<screen>22189 d1 Is+ 0:00.03 /usr/libexec/getty
std.38400 ttyd1</screen>
</informalexample> shows that a <command>getty</command> is running on the second
serial port <literal>ttyd1</literal> and is
using the <literal>std.38400</literal> entry in
<filename>/etc/gettytab</filename>.</para>
<para>If no <command>getty</command> process is
running, make sure you have enabled the port in
<filename>/etc/ttys</filename>. Make sure you have run
<command>kill -HUP 1</command>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Garbage appears instead of a login
prompt</term>
<listitem>
<para>Make sure the terminal and FreeBSD agree on the bps
rate and parity settings. Check the getty processes to
make sure the correct <emphasis remap=tt>getty</emphasis>
type is in use. If not, edit
<filename>/etc/ttys</filename> and run <command>kill -HUP
1</command>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Characters appear doubled; the password
appears when typed</term>
<listitem>
<para>Switch the terminal (or the terminal emulation
software) from <quote>half duplex</quote> or <quote>local echo</quote> to <quote>full
duplex.</quote></para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="dialup">
<title>Dialin Service</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.ghelmer;.</emphasis></para>
<para>This document provides suggestions for configuring a FreeBSD
system to handle dialup modems. This document is written based on
the author's experience with FreeBSD versions 1.0, 1.1, and 1.1.5.1
(and experience with dialup modems on other UNIX-like operating
systems); however, this document may not answer all of your
questions or provide examples specific enough to your environment.
The author cannot be responsible if you damage your system or lose
data due to attempting to follow the suggestions here.</para>
<sect2
id="dialup-prereqs">
<title>Prerequisites</title>
<para>To begin with, the author assumes you have some basic
knowledge of FreeBSD. You need to have FreeBSD installed, know
how to edit files in a UNIX-like environment, and how to look up
manual pages on the system. As discussed below, you will need
certain versions of FreeBSD, and knowledge of some terminology
&amp; modem and cabling.</para>
<sect3>
<title>FreeBSD Version</title>
<para>First, it is assumed that you are using FreeBSD version 1.1
or higher (including versions 2.x). FreeBSD version 1.0
included two different serial drivers, which complicates the
situation. Also, the serial device driver (<emphasis
remap=tt>sio</emphasis>) has improved in every release of
FreeBSD, so more recent versions of FreeBSD are assumed to have
better and more efficient drivers than earlier versions.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Terminology</title>
<para>A quick rundown of terminology:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>bps</term>
<listitem>
<para>Bits per Second - the rate at which data is
transmitted</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>DTE</term>
<listitem>
<para>Data Terminal Equipment - for example, your
computer</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>DCE</term>
<listitem>
<para>Data Communications Equipment - your modem</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>RS-232</term>
<listitem>
<para>EIA standard for serial communications via
hardware</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>If you need more information about these terms and data
communications in general, the author remembers reading that
<emphasis>The RS-232 Bible</emphasis> (anybody have an ISBN?) is
a good reference.</para>
<para>When talking about communications data rates, the author
does not use the term <emphasis remap=bf>baud</emphasis>. Baud
refers to the number of electrical state transitions that may be
made in a period of time, while <emphasis
remap=bf>bps</emphasis> (bits per second) is the <quote>correct</quote>
term to use (at least it does not seem to bother the curmudgeons
quite a much).</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>External vs. Internal Modems</title>
<para>External modems seem to be more convenient for dialup,
because external modems often can be semi-permanently configured
via parameters stored in non-volatile RAM and they usually
provide lighted indicators that display the state of important
RS-232 signals. Blinking lights impress visitors, but lights are
also very useful to see whether a modem is operating
properly.</para>
<para>Internal modems usually lack non-volatile RAM, so their
configuration may be limited only to setting DIP switches. If
your internal modem has any signal indicator lights, it is
probably difficult to view the lights when the system's cover is
in place.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Modems and Cables</title>
<para>A background knowledge of these items is assumed</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para> You know how to connect your modem to your computer
so that the two can communicate (unless you have an
internal modem, which does not need such a cable)
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> You are familiar with your modem's command set, or
know where to look up needed commands
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> You know how to configure your modem (probably via a
terminal communications program) so you can set the
non-volatile RAM parameters
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>The first, connecting your modem, is usually simple - most
straight-through serial cables work without any problems. You
need to have a cable with appropriate connectors (DB-25 or DB-9,
male or female) on each end, and the cable must be a DCE-to-DTE
cable with these signals wired:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para> Transmitted Data (<abbrev>SD</abbrev>)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Received Data (<abbrev>RD</abbrev>)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Request to Send (<abbrev>RTS</abbrev>)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Clear to Send (<abbrev>CTS</abbrev>)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Data Set Ready (<abbrev>DSR</abbrev>)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Data Terminal Ready (<abbrev>DTR</abbrev>)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Carrier Detect (<abbrev>CD</abbrev>)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Signal Ground (<abbrev>SG</abbrev>)</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>FreeBSD needs the <abbrev>RTS</abbrev> and
<abbrev>CTS</abbrev> signals for flow-control at speeds above
2400bps, the <abbrev>CD</abbrev> signal to detect when a call
has been answered or the line has been hung up, and the
<abbrev>DTR</abbrev> signal to reset the modem after a session
is complete. Some cables are wired without all of the needed
signals, so if you have problems, such as a login session not
going away when the line hangs up, you may have a problem with
your cable.</para>
<para>The second prerequisite depends on the modem(s) you use. If
you do not know your modem's command set by heart, you will need
to have the modem's reference book or user's guide handy.
Sample commands for USR Sportster 14,400 external modems will be
given, which you may be able to use as a reference for your own
modem's commands.</para>
<para>Lastly, you will need to know how to setup your modem so
that it will work well with FreeBSD. Like other UNIX-like
operating systems, FreeBSD uses the hardware signals to find out
when a call has been answered or a line has been hung up and to
hangup and reset the modem after a call. FreeBSD avoids sending
commands to the modem or watching for status reports from the
modem. If you are familiar with connecting modems to PC-based
bulletin board systems, this may seem awkward.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Serial Interface Considerations</title>
<para>FreeBSD supports NS8250-, NS16450-, NS16550-, and
NS16550A-based EIA RS-232C (CCITT V.24) communications
interfaces. The 8250 and 16450 devices have single-character
buffers. The 16550 device provides a 16-character buffer, which
allows for better system performance. (Bugs in plain 16550's
prevent the use of the 16-character buffer, so use 16550A's if
possible). Because single-character-buffer devices require more
work by the operating system than the 16-character-buffer
devices, 16550A-based serial interface cards are much prefered.
If the system has many active serial ports or will have a heavy
load, 16550A-based cards are better for low-error-rate
communications.</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Quick Overview</title>
<para>Here is the process that FreeBSD follows to accept dialup
logins. A <command>getty</command> process, spawned by
<command>init</command>, patiently waits to open the
assigned serial port (<filename>/dev/ttyd0</filename>, for our
example). The command <command>ps ax</command> might
show this:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> 4850 ?? I 0:00.09 /usr/libexec/getty V19200
ttyd0</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>When a user dials the modem's line and the modems connect, the
<abbrev>CD</abbrev> line is asserted by the modem. The kernel
notices that carrier has been detected and completes <command>getty</command>'s open of the port. <command>getty</command> sends a <emphasis
remap=tt>login:</emphasis> prompt at the specified initial line
speed. <command>getty</command> watches to see if
legitimate characters are received, and, in a typical
configuration, if it finds junk (probably due to the modem's
connection speed being different than <command>getty</command>'s speed), <command>getty</command> tries adjusting the line speeds until
it receives reasonable characters.</para>
<para>We hope <command>getty</command> finds the correct
speed and the user sees a <emphasis remap=tt>login:</emphasis>
prompt. After the user enters his/her login name, <command>getty</command> executes
<filename>/usr/bin/login</filename>, which completes the login by
asking for the user's password and then starting the user's
shell.</para>
<para>Let's dive into the configuration...</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Kernel Configuration</title>
<para>FreeBSD kernels typically come prepared to search for four
serial ports, known in the PC-DOS world as
<filename>COM1:</filename>, <filename>COM2:</filename>,
<filename>COM3:</filename>, and <filename
remap="tt">COM4:</filename>. FreeBSD can presently also handle
<quote>dumb</quote> multiport serial interface cards, such as the Boca Board
1008 and 2016 (please see the manual page <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sio</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> for kernel configuration information
if you have a multiport serial card). The default kernel only
looks for the standard COM ports, though.</para>
<para>To see if your kernel recognizes any of your serial ports,
watch for messages while the kernel is booting, or use the
<emphasis remap="tt">/sbin/dmesg</emphasis> command to replay the
kernel's boot messages. In particular, look for messages that
start with the characters <literal>sio</literal>. Hint:
to view just the messages that have the word <literal>sio</literal>, use the command: </para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; /sbin/dmesg | grep 'sio'</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>For example, on a system with four serial ports, these are the
serial-port specific kernel boot messages:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>sio0 at 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 on isa sio0: type 16550A sio1
at 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa sio1: type 16550A sio2 at
0x3e8-0x3ef irq 5 on isa sio2: type 16550A sio3 at 0x2e8-0x2ef
irq 9 on isa sio3: type 16550A</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>If your kernel does not recognize all of your serial ports,
you will probably need to configure a custom FreeBSD kernel for
your system.</para>
<para>Please see the BSD System Manager's Manual chapter on
<quote>Building Berkeley Kernels with Config</quote> [the source for which is
in <filename>/usr/src/share/doc/smm</filename>] and <quote>FreeBSD
Configuration Options</quote> [in <filename>/sys/conf/options</filename>
and in
<filename>/sys/<replaceable>arch</replaceable>/conf/options.<replaceable>arch</replaceable></filename>, with <emphasis>arch</emphasis> for example being <filename>i386</filename>] for more information on configuring and building kernels. You may have to unpack the kernel source distribution if have not installed the system sources already (<filename>srcdist/srcsys.??</filename> in FreeBSD 1.1, <filename>srcdist/sys.??</filename> in FreeBSD 1.1.5.1, or the entire source distribution in FreeBSD 2.0) to be able to configure and build kernels.</para>
<para>Create a kernel configuration file for your system (if you
have not already) by <emphasis remap=tt>cd</emphasis>ing to
<filename>/sys/i386/conf</filename>. Then, if you are creating a
new custom configuration file, copy the file
<filename>GENERICAH</filename> (or <filename>GENERICBT</filename>,
if you have a BusTek SCSI controller on FreeBSD 1.x) to
<filename>YOURSYS</filename>, where <filename>YOURSYS</filename>
is the name of your system, but in upper-case letters. Edit the
file, and change the device lines:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty irq
4 vector siointr device sio1 at isa? port "IO_COM2"
tty irq 3 vector siointr device sio2 at isa? port
"IO_COM3" tty irq 5 vector siointr device sio3
at isa? port "IO_COM4" tty irq 9 vector siointr</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>You can comment-out or completely remove lines for devices you
do not have. If you have a multiport serial board, such as the
Boca Board BB2016, please see the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sio</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> man page for complete information on
how to write configuration lines for multiport boards. Be careful
if you are using a configuration file that was previously used for
a different version of FreeBSD because the device flags have
changed between versions.</para>
<note>
<para><literal>port "IO_COM1"</literal> is a
substitution for <literal>port 0x3f8</literal>,
<symbol>IO_COM2</symbol> is <literal>0x2f8</literal>,
<symbol>IO_COM3</symbol> is <literal>0x3e8</literal>, and
<symbol>IO_COM4</symbol> is <literal>0x2e8</literal>, which are
fairly common port addresses for their respective serial ports;
interrupts 4, 3, 5, and 9 are fairly common interrupt request
lines. Also note that regular serial ports <emphasis
remap=bf>cannot</emphasis> share interrupts on ISA-bus PCs
(multiport boards have on-board electronics that allow all the
16550A's on the board to share one or two interrupt request
lines).</para>
</note>
<para>When you are finished adjusting the kernel configuration file,
use the program <command>config</command> as documented
in <quote>Building Berkeley Kernels with Config</quote> and the
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>config</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> manual page to prepare a kernel
building directory, then build, install, and test the new
kernel.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Device Special Files</title>
<para>Most devices in the kernel are accessed through <quote>device
special files</quote>, which are located in the
<filename>/dev</filename> directory. The <emphasis
remap=tt>sio</emphasis> devices are accessed through the
<filename>/dev/ttyd?</filename> (dial-in) and
<filename>/dev/cua0?</filename> (call-out) devices. On FreeBSD
version 1.1.5 and higher, there are also initialization devices
(<filename>/dev/ttyid?</filename> and
<filename>/dev/cuai0?</filename>) and locking devices
(<filename>/dev/ttyld?</filename> and
<filename>/dev/cual0?</filename>). The initialization devices are
used to initialize communications port parameters each time a port
is opened, such as <emphasis remap=tt>crtscts</emphasis> for
modems which use <filename>CTS/RTS</filename> signaling for flow
control. The locking devices are used to lock flags on ports to
prevent users or programs changing certain parameters; see the
manual pages <citerefentry><refentrytitle>termios</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sio</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>, and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>stty</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> for
information on the terminal settings, locking &amp; initializing
devices, and setting terminal options, respectively.</para>
<sect3>
<title>Making Device Special Files</title>
<para>A shell script called <filename>MAKEDEV</filename> in the
<filename>/dev</filename> directory manages the device special
files. (The manual page for <citerefentry><refentrytitle>MAKEDEV</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> on
FreeBSD 1.1.5 is fairly bogus in its discussion of
<acronym>COM</acronym> ports, so ignore it.) To use
<filename>MAKEDEV</filename> to make dialup device special files
for <filename>COM1:</filename> (port 0), <command>cd</command> to <filename>/dev</filename> and issue
the command <command>MAKEDEV ttyd0</command>.
Likewise, to make dialup device special files for
<filename>COM2:</filename> (port 1), use <command>MAKEDEV ttyd1</command>.</para>
<para><filename>MAKEDEV</filename> not only creates the
<filename>/dev/ttyd?</filename> device special files, but also
creates the <filename>/dev/cua0?</filename> (and all of the
initializing and locking special files under FreeBSD 1.1.5 and
up) and removes the hardwired terminal special file
<filename>/dev/tty0?</filename>, if it exists. </para>
<para>After making new device special files, be sure to check the
permissions on the files (especially the
<filename>/dev/cua*</filename> files) to make sure that only
users who should have access to those device special files can
read &amp; write on them - you probably do not want to allow
your average user to use your modems to dialout. The default
permissions on the <filename>/dev/cua*</filename> files should
be sufficient:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 129 Feb 15
14:38 /dev/cua01 crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 161
Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cuai01 crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer
28, 193 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cual01</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>These permissions allow the user <emphasis
remap=tt>uucp</emphasis> and users in the group <emphasis
remap=tt>dialer</emphasis> to use the call-out devices.</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Configuration Files</title>
<para>There are three system configuration files in the
<filename>/etc</filename> directory that you will probably need to
edit to allow dialup access to your FreeBSD system. The first,
<filename>/etc/gettytab</filename>, contains configuration
information for the <filename>/usr/libexec/getty</filename>
daemon. Second, <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> holds information
that tells <filename>/sbin/init</filename> what <emphasis
remap=tt>tty</emphasis> devices should have <emphasis
remap=tt>getty</emphasis> processes running on them. Lastly,
you can place port initialization commands in the
<filename>/etc/rc.serial</filename> script if you have FreeBSD
1.1.5.1 or higher; otherwise, you can initialize ports in the
<filename>/etc/rc.local</filename> script.</para>
<para>There are two schools of thought regarding dialup modems on
UNIX. One group likes to configure their modems and system so
that no matter at what speed a remote user dials in, the local
computer-to-modem RS-232 interface runs at a locked speed. The
benefit of this configuration is that the remote user always sees
a system login prompt immediately. The downside is that the system
does not know what a user's true data rate is, so full-screen
programs like Emacs will not adjust their screen-painting methods
to make their response better for slower connections.</para>
<para>The other school configures their modems' RS-232 interface to
vary its speed based on the remote user's connection speed. For
example, V.32bis (14.4 Kbps) connections to the modem might make
the modem run its RS-232 interface at 19.2 Kbps, while 2400 bps
connections make the modem's RS-232 interface run at 2400 bps.
Because <command>getty</command> does not understand
any particular modem's connection speed reporting, <command>getty</command> gives a <emphasis
remap=tt>login:</emphasis> message at an initial speed and
watches the characters that come back in response. If the user
sees junk, it is assumed that they know they should press the
<emphasis remap=tt>&lt;Enter&gt;</emphasis> key until they see a
recognizable prompt. If the data rates do not match, <command>getty</command> sees anything the user types as
<quote>junk</quote>, tries going to the next speed and gives the <emphasis
remap=tt>login:</emphasis> prompt again. This procedure can
continue ad nauseum, but normally only takes a keystroke or two
before the user sees a good prompt. Obviously, this login sequence
does not look as clean as the former <quote>locked-speed</quote> method, but
a user on a low-speed connection should receive better interactive
response from full-screen programs.</para>
<para>The author will try to give balanced configuration
information, but is biased towards having the modem's data rate
follow the connection rate.</para>
<sect3>
<title><filename>/etc/gettytab</filename></title>
<para><filename>/etc/gettytab</filename> is a <citerefentry><refentrytitle>termcap</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>-style file of configuration
information for <citerefentry><refentrytitle>getty</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>. Please see the
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>gettytab</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> manual page for
complete information on the format of the file and the list of
capabilities.</para>
<sect4>
<title>Locked-Speed Config</title>
<para>If you are locking your modem's data communications rate
at a particular speed, you probably will not need to make any
changes to <filename>/etc/gettytab</filename>.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Matching-Speed Config</title>
<para>You will need to setup an entry in
<filename>/etc/gettytab</filename> to give <command>getty</command> information about the speeds you
wish to use for your modem. If you have a 2400 bps modem, you
can probably use the existing <literal>D2400</literal> entry. This entry already exists
in the FreeBSD 1.1.5.1 <filename>gettytab</filename>
file, so you do not need to add it unless it is missing under
your version of FreeBSD:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen># # Fast dialup terminals, 2400/1200/300 rotary (can
start either way) # D2400|d2400|Fast-Dial-2400:\
:nx=D1200:tc=2400-baud: 3|D1200|Fast-Dial-1200:\
:nx=D300:tc=1200-baud: 5|D300|Fast-Dial-300:\
:nx=D2400:tc=300-baud:</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>If you have a higher speed modem, you will probably need
to add an entry in <filename>/etc/gettytab</filename>; here is
an entry you could use for a 14.4 Kbps modem with a top
interface speed of 19.2 Kbps:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen># # Additions for a V.32bis Modem # um|V300|High
Speed Modem at 300,8-bit:\ :nx=V19200:tc=std.300:
un|V1200|High Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\
:nx=V300:tc=std.1200: uo|V2400|High Speed Modem at
2400,8-bit:\ :nx=V1200:tc=std.2400: up|V9600|High Speed
Modem at 9600,8-bit:\ :nx=V2400:tc=std.9600:
uq|V19200|High Speed Modem at 19200,8-bit:\
:nx=V9600:tc=std.19200:</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>On FreeBSD 1.1.5 and later, this will result in 8-bit, no
parity connections. Under FreeBSD 1.1, add <literal>:np:</literal> parameters to the <emphasis
remap=tt>std.<replaceable>xxx</replaceable></emphasis>
entries at the top of the file for 8 bits, no parity;
otherwise, the default is 7 bits, even parity.</para>
<para>The example above starts the communications rate at 19.2
Kbps (for a V.32bis connection), then cycles through 9600 bps
(for V.32), 2400 bps, 1200 bps, 300 bps, and back to 19.2
Kbps. Communications rate cycling is implemented with the
<literal>nx=</literal> (<emphasis remap=bf>next
table</emphasis>) capability. Each of the lines uses a
<literal>tc=</literal> (<emphasis remap=bf>table
continuation</emphasis>) entry to pick up the rest of the
<quote>standard</quote> settings for a particular data rate.</para>
<para>If you have a 28.8 Kbps modem and/or you want to take
advantage of compression on a 14.4 Kbps modem, you need to use
a higher communications rate than 19.2 Kbps. Here is an
example of a <filename>gettytab</filename> entry
starting a 57.6 Kbps:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen># # Additions for a V.32bis or V.34 Modem # Starting
at 57.6 Kbps # vm|VH300|Very High Speed Modem at
300,8-bit:\ :nx=VH57600:tc=std.300: vn|VH1200|Very High
Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\ :nx=VH300:tc=std.1200:
vo|VH2400|Very High Speed Modem at 2400,8-bit:\
:nx=VH1200:tc=std.2400: vp|VH9600|Very High Speed Modem at
9600,8-bit:\ :nx=VH2400:tc=std.9600: vq|VH57600|Very High
Speed Modem at 57600,8-bit:\
:nx=VH9600:tc=std.57600:</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>If you have a slow CPU or a heavily loaded system and you
do not have 16550A-based serial ports, you may receive sio
<quote>silo</quote> errors at 57.6 Kbps.</para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="dialup-ttys">
<title><filename>/etc/ttys</filename></title>
<para><filename>/etc/ttys</filename> is the list of <emphasis
remap=tt>ttys</emphasis> for <command>init</command> to monitor.
<filename>/etc/ttys</filename> also provides security
information to <command>login</command> (user
<emphasis remap=tt>root</emphasis> may only login on ttys marked
<emphasis remap=tt>secure</emphasis>). See the manual page for
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ttys</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more
information.</para>
<para>You will need to either modify existing lines in
<filename>/etc/ttys</filename> or add new lines to make
<command>init</command> run <command>getty</command> processes automatically on your new
dialup ports. The general format of the line will be the same,
whether you are using a locked-speed or matching-speed
configuration: </para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty xxx" dialup on</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>The first item in the above line is the device special file
for this entry - <literal>ttyd0</literal> means
<filename>/dev/ttyd0</filename> is the file that this <command>getty</command> will be watching. The second item,
<filename>"/usr/libexec/getty
<replaceable>xxx</replaceable>"</filename>
(<emphasis>xxx</emphasis> will be replaced by the initial
<emphasis remap=tt>gettytab</emphasis> capability) is the
process <command>init</command> will run on the
device. The third item, <literal>dialup</literal>,
is the default terminal type. The fourth parameter, <literal>on</literal>, indicates to <emphasis
remap=tt>init</emphasis> that the line is operational. There
can be a fifth parameter, <literal>secure</literal>,
but it should only be used for terminals which are physically
secure (such as the system console).</para>
<para>The default terminal type (<literal>dialup</literal> in the example above) may depend on
local preferences. <literal>dialup</literal> is the
traditional default terminal type on dialup lines so that users
may customize their login scripts to notice when the terminal is
<literal>dialup</literal> and automatically adjust
their terminal type. However, the author finds it easier at his
site to specify <literal>vt102</literal> as the
default terminal type, since the users just use VT102 emulation
on their remote systems.</para>
<para>After you have made changes to
<filename>/etc/ttys</filename>, you may send the <command>init</command> process a <acronym>HUP</acronym>
signal to re-read the file. You can use the command</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; kill -1 1</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>to send the signal. If this is your first time setting up
the system, though, you may want to wait until your modem(s) are
properly configured and connected before signaling <command>init</command>.</para>
<sect4>
<title>Locked-Speed Config</title>
<para>For a locked-speed configuration, your <emphasis
remap=tt>ttys</emphasis> entry needs to have a fixed-speed
entry provided to <emphasis remap=tt>getty</emphasis>. For a
modem whose port speed is locked at 19.2 Kbps, the <emphasis
remap=tt>ttys</emphasis> entry might look like this: </para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" dialup
on</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>If your modem is locked at a different data rate,
substitute the appropriate name for the <emphasis
remap=tt>std.<replaceable>speed</replaceable></emphasis>
entry for <literal>std.19200</literal> from
<filename>/etc/gettytab</filename> for your modem's data
rate.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Matching-Speed Config</title>
<para>In a matching-speed configuration, your <emphasis
remap=tt>ttys</emphasis> entry needs to reference the
appropriate beginning <quote>auto-baud</quote> (sic) entry in
<filename>/etc/gettytab</filename>. For example, if you added
the above suggested entry for a matching-speed modem that
starts at 19.2 Kbps (the <emphasis
remap=tt>gettytab</emphasis> entry containing the <literal>V19200</literal> starting point), your <emphasis
remap=tt>ttys</emphasis> entry might look like this:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty V19200" dialup
on</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title><filename>/etc/rc.serial</filename> or
<filename>/etc/rc.local</filename></title>
<para>High-speed modems, like V.32, V.32bis, and V.34 modems, need
to use hardware (<filename>RTS/CTS</filename>) flow control.
You can add <command>stty</command> commands to
<filename>/etc/rc.serial</filename> on FreeBSD 1.1.5.1 and up,
or <filename>/etc/rc.local</filename> on FreeBSD 1.1, to set the
hardware flow control flag in the FreeBSD kernel for the modem
ports.</para>
<para>For example, on a sample FreeBSD 1.1.5.1 system,
<filename>/etc/rc.serial</filename> reads:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>#!/bin/sh # # Serial port initial configuration stty
-f /dev/ttyid1 crtscts stty -f /dev/cuai01 crtscts</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>which sets the <emphasis remap=tt>termios</emphasis> flag
<emphasis remap=tt>crtscts</emphasis> on serial port #1's
(<emphasis remap=tt>COM2:</emphasis>) dialin and dialout
initialization devices.</para>
<para>On an old FreeBSD 1.1 system, these entries were added to
<filename>/etc/rc.local</filename> to set the <emphasis
remap=tt>crtscts</emphasis> flag on the devices:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen># Set serial ports to use RTS/CTS flow control stty -f
/dev/ttyd0 crtscts stty -f /dev/ttyd1 crtscts stty -f
/dev/ttyd2 crtscts stty -f /dev/ttyd3 crtscts</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Since there is no initialization device special file on
FreeBSD 1.1, one has to just set the flags on the sole device
special file and hope the flags are not cleared by a
miscreant.</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Modem Settings</title>
<para>If you have a modem whose parameters may be permanently set in
non-volatile RAM, you will need to use a terminal program (such as
Telix under PC-DOS or <command>tip</command> under
FreeBSD) to set the parameters. Connect to the modem using the
same communications speed as the initial speed <command>getty</command> will use and configure the modem's
non-volatile RAM to match these requirements:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para> <abbrev>CD</abbrev> asserted when connected
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> <abbrev>DTR</abbrev> asserted for operation; dropping
DTR hangs up line &amp; resets modem
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> <abbrev>CTS</abbrev> transmitted data flow control
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Disable <filename>XON/XOFF</filename> flow control
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> <abbrev>RTS</abbrev> received data flow control
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Quiet mode (no result codes)
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> No command echo
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>Please read the documentation for your modem to find out what
commands and/or DIP switch settings you need to give it.</para>
<para>For example, to set the above parameters on a USRobotics
Sportster 14,400 external modem, one could give these commands to
the modem:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>ATZ AT&amp;C1&amp;D2&amp;H1&amp;I0&amp;R2&amp;W</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>You might also want to take this opportunity to adjust other
settings in the modem, such as whether it will use V.42bis and/or
MNP5 compression.</para>
<para>The USR Sportster 14,400 external modem also has some DIP
switches that need to be set; for other modems, perhaps you can
use these settings as an example:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para> Switch 1: UP - DTR Normal
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Switch 2: Do not care (Verbal Result Codes/Numeric
Result Codes)
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Switch 3: UP - Suppress Result Codes
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Switch 4: DOWN - No echo, offline commands
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Switch 5: UP - Auto Answer
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Switch 6: UP - Carrier Detect Normal
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Switch 7: UP - Load NVRAM Defaults
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Switch 8: Do not care (Smart Mode/Dumb Mode)
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>Result codes should be disabled/suppressed for dialup modems
to avoid problems that can occur if <command>getty</command> mistakenly gives a <emphasis
remap=tt>login:</emphasis> prompt to a modem that is in command
mode and the modem echoes the command or returns a result code. I
have heard this sequence can result in a extended, silly
conversation between <command>getty</command> and the
modem.</para>
<sect3>
<title>Locked-speed Config</title>
<para>For a locked-speed configuration, you will need to configure
the modem to maintain a constant modem-to-computer data rate
independent of the communications rate. On a USR Sportster
14,400 external modem, these commands will lock the
modem-to-computer data rate at the speed used to issue the
commands:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>ATZ AT&amp;B1&amp;W</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Matching-speed Config</title>
<para>For a variable-speed configuration, you will need to
configure your modem to adjust its serial port data rate to
match the incoming call rate. On a USR Sportster 14,400
external modem, these commands will lock the modem's
error-corrected data rate to the speed used to issue the
commands, but allow the serial port rate to vary for
non-error-corrected connections:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>ATZ AT&amp;B2&amp;W</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Checking the Modem's Configuration</title>
<para>Most high-speed modems provide commands to view the modem's
current operating parameters in a somewhat human-readable
fashion. On the USR Sportster 14,400 external modems, the
command <emphasis remap=tt>ATI5</emphasis> displays the settings
that are stored in the non-volatile RAM. To see the true
operating parameters of the modem (as influenced by the USR's
DIP switch settings), use the commands <command>ATZ</command>
and then <emphasis remap=tt>ATI4</emphasis>.</para>
<para>If you have a different brand of modem, check your modem's
manual to see how to double-check your modem's configuration
parameters.</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Troubleshooting</title>
<para>Here are a few steps you can follow to check out the dialup
modem on your system.</para>
<sect3>
<title>Checking out the FreeBSD system</title>
<para>Hook up your modem to your FreeBSD system, boot the system,
and, if your modem has status indication lights, watch to see
whether the modem's <abbrev>DTR</abbrev> indicator lights when
the <emphasis remap=tt>login:</emphasis> prompt appears on the
system's console - if it lights up, that should mean that
FreeBSD has started a <command>getty</command>
process on the appropriate communications port and is waiting
for the modem to accept a call.</para>
<para>If the <abbrev>DTR</abbrev> indicator doesn't light, login
to the FreeBSD system through the console and issue a <command>ps ax</command> to see if FreeBSD is trying to run a
<command>getty</command> process on the correct port.
You should see a lines like this among the processes
displayed:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> 114 ?? I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200
ttyd0 115 ?? I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200
ttyd1</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>If you see something different, like this:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> 114 d0 I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200
ttyd0 ^
</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>and the modem has not accepted a call yet, this means that
<command>getty</command> has completed its open on
the communications port. This could indicate a problem with the
cabling or a mis-configured modem, because <command>getty</command> should not be able to open the
communications port until <abbrev>CD</abbrev> (carrier detect)
has been asserted by the modem.</para>
<para>If you do not see any <command>getty</command>
processes waiting to open the desired <filename>ttyd?</filename>
port, double-check your entries in
<filename>/etc/ttys</filename> to see if there are any mistakes
there. Also, check the log file
<filename>/var/log/messages</filename> to see if there are any
log messages from <command>init</command> or
<command>getty</command> regarding any problems. If
there are any messages, triple-check the configuration files
<filename>/etc/ttys</filename> and
<filename>/etc/gettytab</filename>, as well as the appropriate
device special files <filename>/dev/ttyd?</filename>, for any
mistakes, missing entries, or missing device special
files.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Try Dialing In</title>
<para>Try dialing into the system; be sure to use 8 bits, no
parity, 1 stop bit on the remote system. If you do not get a
prompt right away, or get garbage, try pressing <emphasis
remap=tt>&lt;Enter&gt;</emphasis> about once per second. If
you still do not see a <emphasis remap=tt>login:</emphasis>
prompt after a while, try sending a <command>BREAK</command>.
If you are using a high-speed modem to do the dialing, try
dialing again after locking the dialing modem's interface speed
(via <emphasis remap=tt>AT&amp;B1</emphasis> on a USR Sportster,
for example).</para>
<para>If you still cannot get a <emphasis
remap=tt>login:</emphasis> prompt, check
<filename>/etc/gettytab</filename> again and double-check
that</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para> The initial capability name specified in
<filename>/etc/ttys</filename> for the line matches a name
of a capability in <filename>/etc/gettytab</filename>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Each <literal>nx=</literal> entry matches another
<filename>gettytab</filename> capability name
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Each <literal>tc=</literal> entry matches another
<filename>gettytab</filename> capability name
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>If you dial but the modem on the FreeBSD system will not
answer, make sure that the modem is configured to answer the
phone when <abbrev>DTR</abbrev> is asserted. If the modem
seems to be configured correctly, verify that the
<abbrev>DTR</abbrev> line is asserted by checking the modem's
indicator lights (if it has any).</para>
<para>If you have gone over everything several times and it still
does not work, take a break and come back to it later. If it
still does not work, perhaps you can send an electronic mail
message to the &a.questions;describing your modem and your
problem, and the good folks on the list will try to help.</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Acknowledgments</title>
<para>Thanks to these people for comments and advice:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>&a.kelly;</term>
<listitem>
<para>for a number of good suggestions</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="dialout">
<title>Dialout Service</title>
<para><emphasis>Information integrated from FAQ.</emphasis></para>
<para>The following are tips to getting your host to be able to
connect over the modem to another computer. This is appropriate for
establishing a terminal session with a remote host. </para>
<para>This is useful to log onto a BBS.</para>
<para>This kind of connection can be extremely helpful to get a file
on the Internet if you have problems with PPP. If you need to ftp
something and PPP is broken, use the terminal session to ftp it.
Then use zmodem to transfer it to your machine. </para>
<sect2>
<title>Why cannot I run <command>tip</command> or
<command>cu</command>?</title>
<para>On your system, the programs <command>tip</command>
and <command>cu</command> are probably executable only
by <emphasis remap=tt>uucp</emphasis> and group <emphasis
remap=tt>dialer</emphasis>. You can use the group <emphasis
remap=tt>dialer</emphasis> to control who has access to your
modem or remote systems. Just add yourself to group
dialer.</para>
<para>Alternatively, you can let everyone on your system run
<command>tip</command> and <command>cu</command> by typing: <literallayout>
chmod 4511 /usr/bin/tip </literallayout> You do not have to run
this command for <command>cu</command>, since <command>cu</command> is just a hard link to <command>tip</command>.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>My stock Hayes modem is not supported, what can I do?</title>
<para>Actually, the man page for <command>tip</command>
is out of date. There is a generic Hayes dialer already built in.
Just use <literal>at=hayes</literal> in your
<filename>/etc/remote</filename> file.</para>
<para>The Hayes driver is not smart enough to recognize some of the
advanced features of newer modems--messages like
<acronym>BUSY</acronym>, <emphasis remap=tt>NO
DIALTONE</emphasis>, or <emphasis remap=tt>CONNECT
115200</emphasis> will just confuse it. You should turn those
messages off when you use <command>tip</command> (using
<emphasis remap=tt>ATX0&amp;W</emphasis>).</para>
<para>Also, the dial timeout for <command>tip</command>
is 60 seconds. Your modem should use something less, or else tip
will think there is a communication problem. Try
<literal>ATS7=45&amp;W</literal>.</para>
<para>Actually, as shipped <command>tip</command> does
not yet support it fully. The solution is to edit the file
<filename>tipconf.h</filename> in the directory
<filename>/usr/src/usr.bin/tip/tip</filename> Obviously you need
the source distribution to do this.</para>
<para>Edit the line <literal>#define HAYES
0</literal> to <literal>#define HAYES
1</literal>. Then <command>make</command> and
<command>make install</command>. Everything works
nicely after that.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="direct-at">
<title>How am I expected to enter these AT commands?</title>
<para>Make what is called a <quote><emphasis remap=tt>direct</emphasis></quote>
entry in your <filename>/etc/remote</filename> file. For example,
if your modem is hooked up to the first serial port,
<filename>/dev/cuaa0</filename>, then put in the following line:
<literallayout> cuaa0:dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#19200:pa=none
</literallayout> Use the highest bps rate your modem supports in
the br capability. Then, type <command>tip
cuaa0</command> and you will be connected to your
modem.</para>
<para>If there is no <filename>/dev/cuaa0</filename> on your system,
do this: <literallayout> cd /dev MAKEDEV cuaa0
</literallayout>
</para>
<para>Or use cu as root with the following command: <literallayout>
cu -l<replaceable>line</replaceable> -s<replaceable>speed</replaceable> </literallayout> with <replaceable>line</replaceable> being the
serial port (e.g.<filename>/dev/cuaa0</filename>) and <replaceable>speed</replaceable> being
the speed (e.g.<literal>57600</literal>). When you are
done entering the AT commands hit <command>~.</command>
to exit.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>The <email>@</email> sign for the pn capability does not
work!</title>
<para>The <email>@</email> sign in the phone number capability tells
tip to look in <filename>/etc/phones</filename> for a phone
number. But the <email>@</email> sign is also a special character
in capability files like <filename>/etc/remote</filename>. Escape
it with a backslash: <literallayout> pn=\@
</literallayout>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>How can I dial a phone number on the command line?</title>
<para>Put what is called a <quote><emphasis remap=tt>generic</emphasis></quote>
entry in your <filename>/etc/remote</filename> file. For example:
<literallayout> tip115200|Dial any phone number at
115200 bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#115200:at=hayes:pa=none:du:
tip57600|Dial any phone number at 57600 bps:\
:dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du: </literallayout>
</para>
<para>Then you can things like <command>tip -115200
5551234</command>. If you prefer <command>cu</command> over <command>tip</command>,
use a generic cu entry: <literallayout> cu115200|Use cu
to dial any number at 115200bps:\
:dv=/dev/cuaa1:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du: </literallayout>
and type <command>cu 5551234 -s 115200</command>.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Do I have to type in the bps rate every time I do
that?</title>
<para>Put in an entry for <literal>tip1200</literal> or
<literal>cu1200</literal>, but go ahead and use
whatever bps rate is appropriate with the br capability. <command>tip</command> thinks a good default is 1200 bps which
is why it looks for a <literal>tip1200</literal>
entry. You do not have to use 1200 bps, though.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>I access a number of hosts through a terminal server.</title>
<para>Rather than waiting until you are connected and typing
<command>CONNECT &lt;host&gt;</command> each time,
use tip's <emphasis remap=tt>cm</emphasis> capability. For
example, these entries in <filename>/etc/remote</filename>:
<literallayout> pain|pain.deep13.com|Forrester's
machine:\ :cm=CONNECT pain\n:tc=deep13:
muffin|muffin.deep13.com|Frank's machine:\ :cm=CONNECT
muffin\n:tc=deep13: deep13:Gizmonics Institute terminal server:\
:dv=/dev/cua02:br#38400:at=hayes:du:pa=none:pn=5551234:
</literallayout>
</para>
<para>will let you type <command>tip pain</command>
or <command>tip muffin</command> to connect to the
hosts pain or muffin; and <command>tip
deep13</command> to get to the terminal server.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Can tip try more than one line for each site?</title>
<para>This is often a problem where a university has several modem
lines and several thousand students trying to use them...</para>
<para>Make an entry for your university in
<filename>/etc/remote</filename> and use <email>@</email> for the
<emphasis remap=tt>pn</emphasis> capability: <literallayout>
big-university:\ :pn=\@:tc=dialout dialout:\
:dv=/dev/cuaa3:br#9600:at=courier:du:pa=none: </literallayout>
</para>
<para>Then, list the phone numbers for the university in
<filename>/etc/phones</filename>: <literallayout>
big-university 5551111 big-university 5551112 big-university
5551113 big-university 5551114 </literallayout>
</para>
<para><command>tip</command> will try each one in the
listed order, then give up. If you want to keep retrying, run
<command>tip</command> in a while loop.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Why do I have to hit CTRL+P twice to send CTRL+P
once?</title>
<para>CTRL+P is the default <quote>force</quote> character, used to tell
<command>tip</command> that the next character is
literal data. You can set the force character to any other
character with the <command>~s</command> escape, which
means <quote>set a variable.</quote></para>
<para>Type <literal>~sforce=&lt;single-char&gt;</literal>
followed by a newline. <emphasis
remap=tt>&lt;single-char&gt;</emphasis> is any single character.
If you leave out <emphasis
remap=tt>&lt;single-char&gt;</emphasis>, then the force
character is the nul character, which you can get by typing CTRL+2
or CTRL+SPACE. A pretty good value for <emphasis
remap=tt>&lt;single-char&gt;</emphasis> is SHIFT+CTRL+6, which I
have seen only used on some terminal servers.</para>
<para>You can have the force character be whatever you want by
specifying the following in your
<filename>&#36;HOME/.tiprc</filename> file: <literallayout>
force=&lt;single-char&gt; </literallayout>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Suddenly everything I type is in UPPER CASE??</title>
<para>You must have pressed CTRL+A, <command>tip</command>'s <quote>raise character,</quote> specially
designed for people with broken caps-lock keys. Use <command>~s</command> as above and set the variable
<literal>raisechar</literal> to something reasonable. In fact, you can set it to
the same as the force character, if you never expect to use either
of these features.</para>
<para>Here is a sample .tiprc file perfect for Emacs users who need
to type CTRL+2 and CTRL+A a lot: <literallayout>
force=^^ raisechar=^^ </literallayout> The ^^ is
SHIFT+CTRL+6.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>How can I do file transfers with <command>tip</command>?</title>
<para>If you are talking to another UNIX system, you can send and
receive files with <command>~p</command> (put) and
<command>~t</command> (take). These commands run
<command>cat</command> and <command>echo</command> on the remote system to accept and
send files. The syntax is: <literallayout> ~p
&lt;local-file&gt; [&lt;remote-file&gt;] ~t &lt;remote-file&gt;
[&lt;local-file&gt;] </literallayout>
</para>
<para>There is no error checking, so you probably should use another
protocol, like zmodem.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>How can I run zmodem with <command>tip</command>?</title>
<para>To receive files, start the sending program on the remote end.
Then, type <command>~C rz</command> to begin
receiving them locally.</para>
<para>To send files, start the receiving program on the remote end.
Then, type <command>~C sz &lt;files&gt;</command>
to send them to the remote system.</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
</chapter>
<chapter>
<title>PPP and SLIP</title>
<para>If your connection to the Internet is through a modem, or you wish
to provide other people with dialup connections to the Internet using
FreeBSD, you have the option of using PPP or SLIP. Furthermore, two
varieties of PPP are provided: <emphasis>user</emphasis> (sometimes
referred to as iijppp) and <emphasis>kernel</emphasis>. The
procedures for configuring both types of PPP, and for setting up SLIP
are described in this chapter.</para>
<sect1
id="userppp">
<title>Setting up User PPP</title>
<para>User PPP was introduced to FreeBSD in release 2.0.5 as an
addition to the existing kernel implementation of PPP. So, what is
different about this new PPP that warrants its addition? To quote
from the manual page:</para>
<para>
<blockquote>
<para>This is a user process PPP software package. Normally, PPP
is implemented as a part of the kernel (e.g. as managed by pppd)
and it is thus somewhat hard to debug and/or modify its
behavior. However, in this implementation PPP is done as a user
process with the help of the tunnel device driver (tun).</para>
</blockquote>
</para>
<para>In essence, this means that rather than running a PPP daemon,
the ppp program can be run as and when desired. No PPP interface
needs to be compiled into the kernel, as the program can use the
generic tunnel device to get data into and out of the kernel.</para>
<para>From here on out, user ppp will be referred to simply as ppp
unless a distinction needs to be made between it and any other PPP
client/server software such as pppd. Unless otherwise stated, all
commands in this section should be executed as root.</para>
<sect2>
<title>Before you start</title>
<para>This document assumes you are in roughly this position:</para>
<para>You have an account with an Internet Service Provider (ISP)
which lets you use PPP. Further, you have a modem (or other
device) connected and configured correctly which allows you to
connect to your ISP.</para>
<para>You are going to need the following information to
hand:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Your ISPs phone number(s).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Your login name and password. This can be either a
regular unix style login/password pair, or a PPP PAP or CHAP
login/password pair.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>The IP address of your ISP's gateway. The gateway is
the machine to which you will connect and will be set up as
your <emphasis remap=tt>default route</emphasis>. If your
ISP hasn't given you this number, don't worry. We can make
one up and your ISP's PPP server will tell us when we
connect.</para>
<para>This number is known from now on as
<acronym>HISADDR</acronym>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Your ISP's netmask setting. Again, if your ISP hasn't
given you this information, you can safely use a netmask of
255.255.255.0.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>The IP addresses of one or more nameservers. Normally,
you will be given two IP numbers. You
<emphasis>MUST</emphasis> have this information unless you run
your own nameserver.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If your ISP allocates you a static IP address and
hostname then you will need this information too. If not,
you will need to know from what range of IP addresses your
allocated IP address will belong. If you haven't been given
this range, don't worry. You can configure PPP to accept any
IP number (as explained later).</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>If you do not have any of the required information, contact
your ISP and make sure they provide it to you.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Building a ppp ready kernel</title>
<para>As the description states, <command>ppp</command> uses the kernel <devicename>tun</devicename>
device. It is necessary to make sure that your kernel has support
for this device compiled in.</para>
<para>To check this, go to your kernel compile directory
(<filename>/sys/i386/conf</filename> or
<filename>/sys/pc98/conf</filename>) and examine your kernel
configuration file. It needs to have the line</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> pseudo-device tun 1</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>in it somewhere. The stock <filename>GENERIC</filename> kernel
has this as standard, so if you have not installed a custom kernel
or you do not have a /sys directory, you do not have to change
anything.</para>
<para>If your kernel configuration file does not have this line in
it, or you need to configure more than one tun device (for
example, if you are setting up a server and could have 16 dialup
ppp connections at any one time then you will need to use <literal>16</literal>
instead of <literal>1</literal>), then you should add the line, re-compile,
re-install and boot the new kernel. Please refer to the
<xref linkend="kernelconfig" remap="Configuring the FreeBSD
Kernel"> section for more information on kernel
configuration.</para>
<para>You can check how many tunnel devices your current kernel has
by typing the following:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> # ifconfig -a tun0:
flags=8051&lt;UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST&gt; mtu 1500
inet 200.10.100.1 --&gt; 203.10.100.24 netmask 0xffffffff
tun1: flags=8050&lt;POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST&gt; mtu 576
tun2: flags=8051&lt;UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST&gt; mtu
1500 inet 203.10.100.1 --&gt; 203.10.100.20 netmask 0xffffffff
tun3: flags=8050&lt;POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST&gt; mtu
1500</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>which in this case shows four tunnel devices, two of which are
currently configured and being used.</para>
<para>If you have a kernel without the tun device, and you can not
rebuild it for some reason, all is not lost. You should be able
to dynamically load the code. Refer to the appropriate <citerefentry><refentrytitle>modload</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lkm</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> pages for further details.</para>
<para>You may also wish to take this opportunity to configure a
firewall. Details can be found in the <xref linkend="firewalls"
remap="Firewalls"> section.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Check the tun device</title>
<para>Most users will only require one <devicename>tun</devicename> device (<filename>/dev/tun0</filename>). If you
have used more (i.e., a number other than <literal>1</literal> in the pseudo-device
line in the kernel configuration file) then alter all references
to <devicename>tun0</devicename> below to reflect whichever device number you are
using.</para>
<para>The easiest way to make sure that the <devicename>tun0</devicename> device is
configured correctly is to re-make it. To do this, execute the
following commands:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV tun0</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>If you require 16 tunnel devices in your kernel, you will need
to create more than just tun0:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV tun15</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Also, to confirm that the kernel is configured correctly, the
following command should give the indicated output:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; ifconfig tun0 tun0:
flags=8050&lt;POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST&gt; mtu 1500 $
</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Name Resolution Configuration</title>
<para>The resolver is the part of the system that turns IP addresses
into hostnames and vice versa. It can be configured to look for
maps that describe IP to hostname mappings in one of two places.
The first is a file called <filename>/etc/hosts</filename>
(<emphasis remap=tt>man 5 hosts</emphasis>). The second is the
Internet Domain Name Service (DNS), a distributed data base, the
discussion of which is beyond the scope of this document.</para>
<para>This section describes briefly how to configure your
resolver.</para>
<para>The resolver is a set of system calls that do the name
mappings, but you have to tell them where to find their
information. You do this by first editing the file
<filename>/etc/host.conf</filename>. Do <emphasis
remap=bf>not</emphasis> call this file
<filename>/etc/hosts.conf</filename> (note the extra <quote>s</quote>) as the
results can be confusing.</para>
<sect3>
<title>Edit the /etc/host.conf file</title>
<para>This file should contain the following two lines:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> hosts bind</screen>
</informalexample> which instructs the resolver to first look in
the file <filename>/etc/hosts</filename>, and then to consult
the DNS if the name was not found.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Edit the <filename>/etc/hosts</filename>(5) file</title>
<para>This file should contain the IP addresses and names of
machines on your network. At a bare minimum it should contain
entries for the machine which will be running ppp. Assuming that
your machine is called foo.bar.com with the IP address 10.0.0.1,
<filename>/etc/hosts</filename> should contain:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> 127.0.0.1 localhost 10.0.0.1 foo.bar.com
foo</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>The first line defines the alias <hostid>localhost</hostid> as a synonym
for the current machine. Regardless of your own IP address, the
IP address for this line should always be <hostid role="ipaddr">127.0.0.1</hostid>. The second
line maps the name <hostid role="fqdn">foo.bar.com</hostid> (and the shorthand <hostid>foo</hostid>)
to the IP address <hostid role="ipaddr">10.0.0.1</hostid>.</para>
<para>If your provider allocates you a static IP address and name,
then use these in place of the <hostid role="ipaddr">10.0.0.1</hostid> entry.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Edit the <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> file</title>
<para><filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> tells the resolver how
to behave. If you are running your own DNS, you may leave this
file empty. Normally, you will need to enter the following
line(s):</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> nameserver x.x.x.x nameserver y.y.y.y domain
bar.com</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>The <emphasis remap="tt">x.x.x.x</emphasis> and <emphasis
remap="tt">y.y.y.y</emphasis> addresses are those given to you
by your ISP. Add as many <literal>nameserver</literal> lines as your ISP
provides. The <literal>domain</literal> line defaults to your hostname's
domain, and is probably unnecessary. Refer to the resolv.conf
manual page for details of other possible entries in this
file.</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>PPP Configuration</title>
<para>Both user ppp and pppd (the kernel level implementation of
PPP) use configuration files located in the
<filename>/etc/ppp</filename> directory. The sample configuration
files provided are a good reference for user ppp, so don't delete
them.</para>
<para>Configuring ppp requires that you edit a number of files,
depending on your requirements. What you put in them depends to
some extent on whether your ISP allocates IP addresses statically
(i.e., you get given one IP address, and always use that one) or
dynamically (i.e., your IP address can be different for each PPP
session).</para>
<sect3
id="userppp-staticIP">
<title>PPP and Static IP addresses
</title>
<para>You will need to create a configuration file called
<filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.conf</filename>. It should look similar
to the example below.</para>
<note>
<para>Lines that end in a <token>:</token> start in the first column, all
other lines should be indented as shown using spaces or
tabs.</para>
</note>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>1 default: 2 set device /dev/cuaa0 3
set speed 115200 4 set dial "ABORT BUSY ABORT
NO\\sCARRIER TIMEOUT 5 \"\" ATE1Q0 OK-AT-OK \\dATDT\\T
TIMEOUT 40 CONNECT" 5 provider: 6 set phone
"(0123) 456 7890" 7 set login "TIMEOUT 10
gin:-BREAK-gin: foo word: bar col: ppp" 8 set timeout
300 9 deny lqr 10 set ifaddr x.x.x.x y.y.y.y 11
delete ALL 12 add 0 0 HISADDR</screen>
</informalexample> Do not include the line numbers, they are
just for reference in this discussion.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>Line 1:</term>
<listitem>
<para>Identifies the default entry. Commands in this
entry are executed automatically when ppp is run.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Line 2:</term>
<listitem>
<para>Identifies the device to which the modem is
connected. COM1: is <filename>/dev/cuaa0</filename> and
COM2: is <filename>/dev/cuaa1</filename>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Line 3:</term>
<listitem>
<para>Sets the speed you want to connect at. If 115200
doesn't work (it should with any reasonably new modem),
try 38400 instead.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Line 4:</term>
<listitem>
<para>The dial string. User ppp uses an expect-send
syntax similar to the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chat</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
program. Refer to the manual page for information on
the features of this language.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Line 5:</term>
<listitem>
<para>Identifies an entry for a provider called
<quote>provider</quote>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Line 6:</term>
<listitem>
<para>Sets the phone number for this provider. Multiple
phone numbers may be specified using the <token>:</token> or <token>|</token>
character as a separator. The difference between these
spearators is described in the ppp manual page. To
summarize, if you want to rotate through the numbers,
use the <token>:</token>. If you want to always attempt to dial
the first number first and only use the other numbers if
the first number fails, use the <token>|</token>. Always quote the
entire set of phone numbers as shown.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Line 7:</term>
<listitem>
<para>The login string is of the same chat-like syntax as
the dial string. In this example, the string works for
a service whose login session looks like this:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> J. Random Provider login: foo password: bar
protocol: ppp</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>You will need to alter this script to suit your own
needs. If you're using PAP or CHAP, there will be no
login at this point, so your login string can be left
blank. See
<xref linkend="userppp-PAPnCHAP" remap="PAP and CHAP
authentication"> for further details.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Line 8:</term>
<listitem>
<para>Sets the default timeout (in seconds) for the
connection. Here, the connection will be closed
automatically after 300 seconds of inactivity. If you
never want to timeout, set this value to zero.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Line 9:</term>
<listitem>
<para>Ppp can be configured to exchange Link Quality
Report (LQR) packets. These packets describe how good
the physical link is. Ppp's LQR strategy is to close
the connection when a number of these packets are
missed. This is useful when you have a direct serial
link to another machine and the DSR modem signal is not
available to indicate that the line is up. When data
saturates the line, LQR packets are sometimes
<quote>missed</quote>, causing ppp to close the connection
prematurely. Refusing to negotiate lqr is sometimes
prudent (if you are going through a modem) as it avoids
this whole mess. By default, ppp will not attempt to
negotiate LQR, but will accept LQR negotiation from the
peer.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Line 10:</term>
<listitem>
<para>Sets the interface addresses. The string x.x.x.x
should be replaced by the IP address that your provider
has allocated to you. The string y.y.y.y should be
replaced by the IP address that your ISP indicated for
their gateway (the machine to which you connect). If
your ISP hasn't given you a gateway address, use
<hostid role="netmask">10.0.0.2/0</hostid>. If you need
to use a <quote>guessed</quote> address, make sure that you create
an entry in <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup</filename> as
per the instructions for
<xref linkend="userppp-dynamicIP" remap="PPP and Dynamic
IP addresses">. If this line is omitted, ppp cannot
run in <option>-auto</option> or
<option>-dynamic</option> mode.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Line 11:</term>
<listitem>
<para>Deletes all existing routing table entries for the
acquired tun device. This should not normally be
necessary, but will make sure that PPP is starting with
a clean bill of health.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Line 12:</term>
<listitem>
<para>Adds a default route to your ISPs gateway. The
special word <acronym>HISADDR</acronym> is replaced with
the gateway address specified on line 9. It is
important that this line appears after line 9, otherwise
<acronym>HISADDR</acronym> will not yet be
initialized.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>It is not necessary to add an entry to
<filename>ppp.linkup</filename> when you have a static IP
address as your routing table entries are already correct before
you connect. You may however wish to create an entry to invoke
programs after connection. This is explained later with the
sendmail example.</para>
<para>Example configuration files can be found in the
<filename>/etc/ppp</filename> directory.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="userppp-dynamicIP">
<title>PPP and Dynamic IP addresses
</title>
<para>If your service provider does not assign static IP numbers,
<command>ppp</command> can be configured to negotiate
the local and remote addresses. This is done by <quote>guessing</quote> an
IP number and allowing ppp to set it up correctly using the IP
Configuration Protocol (IPCP) after connecting. The
<filename>ppp.conf</filename> configuration is the same as <xref
linkend="userppp-staticIP" remap="PPP and
Static IP addresses">, with the following change:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>10 set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0
255.255.255.0</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Again, do not include the line numbers, they are just for
reference in this discussion. Indentation of at least one space
is required.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>Line 10:</term>
<listitem>
<para>The number after the <token>/</token> character is the number
of bits of the address that ppp will insist on. You may
wish to use IP numbers more appropriate to your
circumstances, but the above example will almost always
work. If it fails, you may be able to defeat some
broken ppp implementations by supplying an additional
<literal>0.0.0.0</literal> argument:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0
255.255.255.0 0.0.0.0</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>This tells ppp to negotiate using address <hostid
role="ipaddr">0.0.0.0</hostid> rather than <hostid
role="ipaddr">10.0.0.1</hostid>. Do not use <hostid
role="netmask">0.0.0.0/0</hostid> as the first argument
to <command>set ifaddr</command> as it
prevents ppp from setting up an initial route in
<option>-auto</option> and <option>-ddial</option>
mode.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>You will also need to create an entry in
<filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup</filename>.
<filename>ppp.linkup</filename> is used after a connection has
been established. At this point, ppp will know what IP
addresses should <emphasis remap=bf>really</emphasis> be used.
The following entry will delete the existing bogus routes, and
create correct ones:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>1 provider: 2 delete ALL 3 add 0 0
HISADDR</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>Line 1:</term>
<listitem>
<para>On establishing a connection, ppp will look for an
entry in <filename>ppp.linkup</filename> according to
the following rules: First, try to match the same label
as we used in <filename>ppp.conf</filename>. If that
fails, look for an entry for the IP number of our
gateway. This entry is a four-octet IP style label. If
we still haven't found an entry, look for the
<acronym>MYADDR</acronym> entry.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Line 2:</term>
<listitem>
<para>This line tells ppp to delete all existing routes
for the acquired tun interface (except the direct route
entry).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Line 3:</term>
<listitem>
<para>This line tells ppp to add a default route that
points to <acronym>HISADDR</acronym>.
<acronym>HISADDR</acronym> will be replaced with the IP
number of the gateway as negotiated in the IPCP.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>See the pmdemand entry in the files
<filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.conf.sample</filename> and
<filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup.sample</filename> for a detailed
example.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Receiving incoming calls with PPP</title>
<para>This section describes setting up ppp in a server
role.</para>
<para>When you configure <command>ppp</command> to
receive incoming calls, you must decide whether you wish to
forward packets for just <command>ppp</command>
connections, for all interfaces, or not at all. To forward for
just ppp connections, include the line</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> enable proxy</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>in your <filename>ppp.conf</filename> file. If you wish to
forward packets on all interfaces, use the</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> gateway=YES</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>option in <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> (this file used
to be called <filename>/etc/sysconfig</filename>).</para>
<sect4>
<title>Which getty?</title>
<para><xref linkend="dialup" remap="Configuring FreeBSD for
Dialup Services"> provides a good description on enabling
dialup services using getty.</para>
<para>An alternative to getty is <ulink
URL="http://www.leo.org/~doering/mgetty/index.html">mgetty</ulink>, a smarter version of getty designed with dialup lines in mind.</para>
<para>The advantages of using mgetty is that it actively
<emphasis>talks</emphasis> to modems, meaning if port is
turned off in <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> then your modem
won't answer the phone.</para>
<para>Later versions of mgetty (from 0.99beta onwards) also
support the automatic detection of PPP streams, allowing your
clients script-less access to your server.</para>
<para>Refer to <xref linkend="userppp-mgetty" remap="Mgetty and
AutoPPP"> for more information on mgetty.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>PPP permissions</title>
<para>PPP must normally be run as user id 0. If however you
wish to allow ppp to run in server mode as a normal user by
executing ppp as described below, that user must be given
permission to run ppp by adding them to the <emphasis
remap=tt>network</emphasis> group in
<filename>/etc/group</filename>.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Setting up a PPP shell for dynamic-IP users</title>
<para>Create a file called
<filename>/etc/ppp/ppp-shell</filename> containing the
following:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> #!/bin/sh IDENT=`echo $0 | sed -e
's/^.*-\(.*\)$/\1/'` CALLEDAS="$IDENT" TTY=`tty` if [
x$IDENT = xdialup ]; then IDENT=`basename $TTY` fi echo
"PPP for $CALLEDAS on $TTY" echo "Starting PPP for $IDENT"
exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct $IDENT</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>This script should be executable. Now make a symbolic
link called <filename>ppp-dialup</filename> to this script
using the following commands:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell
/etc/ppp/ppp-dialup</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>You should use this script as the
<emphasis>shell</emphasis> for all your dialup ppp users.
This is an example from <filename>/etc/password</filename> for
a dialup PPP user with username pchilds. (remember don't
directly edit the password file, use <command>vipw</command>)</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> pchilds:*:1011:300:Peter Childs
PPP:/home/ppp:/etc/ppp/ppp-dialup</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Create a <filename>/home/ppp</filename> directory that is
world readable containing the following 0 byte files</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 May 27
02:23 .hushlogin -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0
May 27 02:22 .rhosts</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>which prevents <filename>/etc/motd</filename> from being
displayed.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Setting up a PPP shell for static-IP users</title>
<para>Create the <filename>ppp-shell</filename> file as above
and for each account with statically assigned IPs create a
symbolic link to <filename>ppp-shell</filename>.</para>
<para>For example, if you have three dialup customers fred, sam,
and mary, that you route class C networks for, you would type
the following:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-fred &prompt.root; ln
-s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-sam &prompt.root; ln -s
/etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-mary</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Each of these users dialup accounts should have their
shell set to the symbolic link created above. (ie. mary's
shell should be
<filename>/etc/ppp/ppp-mary</filename>).</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Setting up ppp.conf for dynamic-IP users</title>
<para>The <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.conf</filename> file should
contain something along the lines of</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> default: set debug phase lcp chat set timeout 0
ttyd0: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20
255.255.255.255 enable proxy ttyd1: set ifaddr
203.14.100.1 203.14.100.21 255.255.255.255 enable
proxy</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Note the indenting is important.</para>
<para>The <literal>default:</literal> section is
loaded for each session. For each dialup line enabled in
<filename>/etc/ttys</filename> create an entry similar to the
one for <literal>ttyd0:</literal> above. Each line
should get a unique IP from your pool of ip address for
dynamic users.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Setting up ppp.conf for static-IP users</title>
<para>Along with the contents of the sample
<filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.conf</filename> above you should add a
section for each of the statically assigned dialup users. We
will continue with our fred, sam, and mary example.</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> fred: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.101.1
255.255.255.255 sam: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.102.1
255.255.255.255 mary: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.103.1
255.255.255.255</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>The file <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup</filename> should
also contain routing information for each static IP user if
required. The line below would add a route for the <hostid
role="ipaddr">203.14.101.0</hostid> class C via the client's
ppp link.</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> fred: add 203.14.101.0 netmask 255.255.255.0
HISADDR sam: add 203.14.102.0 netmask 255.255.255.0
HISADDR mary: add 203.14.103.0 netmask 255.255.255.0
HISADDR</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>More on mgetty, AutoPPP, and MS extensions</title>
<sect5
id="userppp-mgetty">
<title>Mgetty and AutoPPP
</title>
<para>Configuring and compiling mgetty with the AUTO_PPP
option enabled allows mgetty to detect the LCP phase of PPP
connections and automatically spawn off a ppp shell.
However, since the default login/password sequence does not
occur it is necessary to authenticate users using either PAP
or CHAP.</para>
<para>This section assumes the user has successfully
configured, compiled, and installed a version of mgetty with
the AUTO_PPP option (v0.99beta or later)</para>
<para>Make sure your
<filename>/usr/local/etc/mgetty+sendfax/login.config</filename> file has the following in it:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> /AutoPPP/ - -
/etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>This will tell mgetty to run the
<filename>ppp-pap-dialup</filename> script for detected PPP
connections.</para>
<para>Create a file called
<filename>/etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup</filename> containing the
following (the file should be executable):</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> #!/bin/sh TTY=`tty` IDENT=`basename $TTY` exec
/usr/sbin/ppp -direct pap$IDENT</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>For each dialup line enabled in
<filename>/etc/ttys</filename> create a corresponding entry
in <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.conf</filename>. This will
happily co-exist with the definitions we created
above.</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> papttyd0: enable pap set ifaddr 203.14.100.1
203.14.100.20 255.255.255.255 enable proxy papttyd1:
enable pap set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.21
255.255.255.255 enable proxy</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Each user logging in with this method will need to have
a username/password in
<filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.secret</filename> file, or
alternatively add the</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> enable passwdauth</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>option to authenticate users via pap from the
<filename>/etc/password</filename>d file. (*) </para>
<para>(*) Note this option only available in 2.2-961014-SNAP
or later, or by getting the updated ppp code for 2.1.x. (see
MS extensions below for details)</para>
</sect5>
<sect5>
<title>MS extentions</title>
<para>From 2.2-961014-SNAP onwards it is possible to allow the
automatic negotiation of DNS and NetBIOS name servers with
clients supporting this feature (namely Win95/NT clients).
See RFC1877 for more details on the protocol.</para>
<para>An example of enabling these extensions in your
<filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.conf</filename> file is illustrated
below.</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> default: set debug phase lcp chat set timeout 0
enable msext set ns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2 set nbns
203.14.100.5</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>This will tell the clients the primary and secondary
name server addresses, and a netbios nameserver host.</para>
</sect5>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="userppp-PAPnCHAP">
<title>PAP and CHAP authentication
</title>
<para>Some ISPs set their system up so that the authentication
part of your connection is done using either of the PAP or CHAP
authentication mechanisms. If this is the case, your ISP will
not give a <emphasis remap=tt>login:</emphasis> prompt when you
connect, but will start talking PPP immediately.</para>
<para>PAP is less secure than CHAP, but security is not normally
an issue here as passwords, although being sent as plain text
with PAP, are being transmitted down a serial line only.
There's not much room for hackers to <quote>eavesdrop</quote>.</para>
<para>Referring back to the <xref linkend="userppp-staticIP"
remap="PPP and Static IP addresses"> or <xref
linkend="userppp-dynamicIP" remap="PPP and Dynamic IP
addresses"> sections, the following alterations must be
made:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>7 set login ..... 13 set authname
MyUserName 14 set authkey MyPassword</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>As always, do not include the line numbers, they are just
for reference in this discussion. Indentation of at least one
space is required.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>Line 7:</term>
<listitem>
<para>Your ISP will not normally require that you log into
the server if you're using PAP or CHAP. You must
therefore disable your "set login" string.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Line 13:</term>
<listitem>
<para>This line specifies your PAP/CHAP user name. You
will need to insert the correct value for <emphasis
remap=tt>MyUserName</emphasis>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Line 14:</term>
<listitem>
<para>This line specifies your PAP/CHAP password. You
will need to insert the correct value for <emphasis
remap=tt>MyPassword</emphasis>. You may want to add an
additional line
<informalexample>
<screen>15 accept PAP</screen>
</informalexample> or
<informalexample>
<screen>15 accept CHAP</screen>
</informalexample> to make it obvious that this is the
intention, but PAP and CHAP are accepted by
default.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<note>
<para>Your <emphasis remap=tt>authkey</emphasis> will be logged
if you have command logging turned on (<command>set log
+command</command>). Care should be taken when deciding the
ppp log file permissions.</para>
</note>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Changing your ppp configuration on the fly</title>
<para>It is possible to talk to the ppp program while it is
running in the background, but only if a suitable password has
been set up.</para>
<para>By default, ppp will listen to a TCP port of 3000 +
<emphasis remap=tt>tunno</emphasis>, where <emphasis
remap=tt>tunno</emphasis> is the number of the tun device
acquired, however, if a password for the local machine is not
set up in <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.secret</filename>, no server
connection will be created. To set your password, put the
following line in
<filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.secret</filename>:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>foo MyPassword</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>where <emphasis remap=tt>foo</emphasis> is your local
hostname (run <command>hostname -s</command> to determine the
correct name), and <emphasis remap=tt>MyPassword</emphasis> is
the unencrypted password that you wish to use.
<filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.secret</filename> should
<emphasis>NOT</emphasis> be accessable by anyone without user id
0. This means that <filename>/</filename>,
<filename>/etc</filename> and <filename>/etc/ppp</filename>
should not be writable, and <filename>ppp.secret</filename>
should be owned by user id 0 and have permissions 0600.</para>
<para>It is also possible to select a specific port number or to
have ppp listen to a local unix domain socket rather than to a
TCP socket. Refer to the <command>set
socket</command> command in manual page for further
details.</para>
<para>Once a socket has been set up, the
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>pppctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> program may be used in scripts that
wish to manipulate the running program.</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="userppp-final">
<title>Final system configuration
</title>
<para>You now have PPP configured, but there are a few more things
to do before it is ready to work. They all involve editing the
<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> file (was
<filename>/etc/sysconfig</filename>).</para>
<para>Working from the top down in this file, make sure the
<literal>hostname=</literal> line is set, e.g.:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> hostname=foo.bar.com</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>If your ISP has supplied you with a static IP address and
name, it's probably best that you use this name as your host
name.</para>
<para>Look for the network_interfaces variable. If you want to
configure your system to dial your ISP on demand, make sure the
tun0 device is added to the list, otherwise remove it.</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> network_interfaces="lo0 tun0" ifconfig_tun0=</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<note>
<para>The <symbol>ifconfig_tun0</symbol> variable should be empty,
and a file called <filename>/etc/start_if.tun0</filename> should
be created. This file should contain the line</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> ppp -auto mysystem</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>This script is executed at network configuration time,
starting your ppp daemon in automatic mode. If you have a LAN
for which this machine is a gateway, you may also wish to use
the <option>-alias</option> switch. Refer to the manual page
for further details.</para>
</note>
<para>Set the router program to <literal>NO</literal> with the line</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> router_enable=NO (/etc/rc.conf) router=NO
(/etc/sysconfig)</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>It is important that the <command>routed</command>
daemon is not started (it's started by default) as <command>routed</command> tends to delete the default routing
table entries created by ppp.</para>
<para>It is probably worth your while ensuring that the
<literal>sendmail_flags</literal> line does not include the <option>-q</option> option,
otherwise sendmail will attempt to do a network lookup every now
and then, possibly causing your machine to dial out. You may
try:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> sendmail_flags="-bd"</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>The upshot of this is that you must force sendmail to
re-examine the mail queue whenever the ppp link is up by
typing:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; /usr/sbin/sendmail -q</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>You may wish to use the <command>!bg</command>
command in <filename>ppp.linkup</filename> to do this
automatically:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>1 provider: 2 delete ALL 3 add 0 0
HISADDR 4 !bg sendmail -bd -q30m</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>If you don't like this, it is possible to set up a "dfilter"
to block SMTP traffic. Refer to the sample files for further
details.</para>
<para>All that is left is to reboot the machine.</para>
<para>After rebooting, you can now either type</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; ppp</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>and then <command>dial provider</command> to start the PPP session, or, if
you want ppp to establish sessions automatically when there is
outbound traffic (and you haven't created the start_if.tun0
script), type</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; ppp -auto provider</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Summary</title>
<para>To recap, the following steps are necessary when setting up
ppp for the first time:</para>
<para>Client side:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Ensure that the tun device is built into your
kernel.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Ensure that the <filename>tunX</filename> device file is
available in the <filename>/dev</filename> directory.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Create an entry in
<filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.conf</filename>. The <emphasis
remap=tt>pmdemand</emphasis> example should suffice for
most ISPs.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If you have a dynamic IP address, create an entry in
<filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup</filename>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Update your <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> (or
<filename>sysconfig</filename>) file.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Create a start_if.tun0 script if you require demand
dialing.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>Server side:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Ensure that the tun device is built into your
kernel.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Ensure that the <filename>tunX</filename> device file is
available in the <filename>/dev</filename> directory.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Create an entry in <filename>/etc/passwd</filename>
(using the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vipw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> program).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Create a profile in this users home directory that runs
<command>ppp -direct direct-server</command> or similar.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Create an entry in
<filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.conf</filename>. The <emphasis
remap=tt>direct-server</emphasis> example should
suffice.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Create an entry in
<filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup</filename>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Update your <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> (or
<filename>sysconfig</filename>) file.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Acknowledgments</title>
<para>This section of the handbook was last updated on Sun Sep 7,
1997 by &a.brian;</para>
<para>Thanks to the following for their input, comments &amp;
suggestions:</para>
<para>&a.nik;</para>
<para>&a.dirkvangulik;</para>
<para>&a.pjc;</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="ppp">
<title>Setting up Kernel PPP</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.gena;.</emphasis></para>
<para>Before you start setting up PPP on your machine make sure that
pppd is located in <filename>/usr/sbin</filename> and directory
<filename>/etc/ppp</filename> exists.</para>
<para>pppd can work in two modes:
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para> as a <quote>client</quote> , i.e. you want to connect your machine to
outside world via PPP serial connection or modem line.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> as a <quote>server</quote> , i.e. your machine is located on the
network and used to connect other computers using PPP.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist> In both cases you will need to set up an options file
(<filename>/etc/ppp/options</filename> or
<filename>~/.ppprc</filename> if you have more then one user on your
machine that uses PPP).</para>
<para>You also will need some modem/serial software ( preferably
kermit ) so you can dial and establish connection with remote
host.</para>
<sect2>
<title>Working as a PPP client</title>
<para>I used the following <filename>/etc/ppp/options</filename> to
connect to CISCO terminal server PPP line. <literallayout>crtscts
# enable hardware flow control modem # modem
control line noipdefault # remote PPP server must supply your
IP address. # if the remote host doesn't send your IP during
IPCP # negotiation , remove this option passive # wait
for LCP packets domain ppp.foo.com # put your domain name
here :&lt;remote_ip&gt; # put the IP of remote PPP host here #
it will be used to route packets via PPP link # if you didn't
specified the noipdefault option # change this line to
&lt;local_ip&gt;:&lt;remote_ip&gt; defaultroute # put this if
you want that PPP server will be your # default
router</literallayout>
</para>
<para>To connect:
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para> Dial to the remote host using kermit ( or other modem
program ) enter your user name and password ( or whatever is
needed to enable PPP on the remote host )
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Exit kermit. ( without hanging up the line )
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> enter: <literallayout>/usr/src/usr.sbin/pppd.new/pppd
/dev/tty01 19200</literallayout> ( put the appropriate
speed and device name )</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
<para>Now your computer is connected with PPP. If the connection
fails for some reasons you can add the <option>debug</option> option to the
<filename>/etc/ppp/options</filename> file and check messages on
the console to track the problem</para>
<para>Following <filename>/etc/ppp/pppup</filename> script will make
all 3 stages automatically: <literallayout>#!/bin/sh ps ax |grep
pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk
'{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing
pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v
grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if
[ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid}
kill -9 ${pid} fi ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit
-y /etc/ppp/kermit.dial pppd /dev/tty01 19200</literallayout>
</para>
<para><filename>/etc/ppp/kermit.dial</filename> is kermit script
that dials and makes all necessary authorization on the remote
host. ( Example of such script is attached to the end of this
document )</para>
<para>Use the following <filename>/etc/ppp/pppdown</filename> script
to disconnect the PPP line: <literallayout>#!/bin/sh pid=`ps ax
|grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ X${pid} != "X"
] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill -TERM ${pid} fi
ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep
-v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo
'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi /sbin/ifconfig
ppp0 down /sbin/ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y
/etc/ppp/kermit.hup /etc/ppp/ppptest</literallayout>
</para>
<para>Check if PPP is still running
(<filename>/usr/etc/ppp/ppptest</filename>):
<literallayout>#!/bin/sh pid=`ps ax| grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk
'{print $1;}'` if [ X${pid} != "X" ] ; then echo 'pppd running:
PID=' ${pid-NONE} else echo 'No pppd running.' fi set -x netstat
-n -I ppp0 ifconfig ppp0</literallayout>
</para>
<para>Hangs up modem line
(<filename>/etc/ppp/kermit.hup</filename>): <literallayout>set
line /dev/tty01 ; put your modem device here set speed 19200
set file type binary set file names literal set win 8 set rec
pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set
command bytesize 8 set flow none pau 1 out +++ inp 5 OK out
ATH0\13 echo \13 exit</literallayout>
</para>
<para>Here is an alternate method using <command>chat</command> instead of <command>kermit</command>.</para>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.rhuff;.</emphasis></para>
<para>The following two files are sufficient to accomplish a pppd
connection.</para>
<para><filename>/etc/ppp/options</filename>: <literallayout>
/dev/cuaa1 115200 crtscts # enable hardware flow control
modem # modem control line connect "/usr/bin/chat -f
/etc/ppp/login.chat.script" noipdefault # remote PPP server
must supply your IP address. # if the remote host doesn't send
your IP during # IPCP negotiation, remove this option passive
# wait for LCP packets domain &lt;your.domain&gt; # put your
domain name here : # put the IP of remote PPP
host here # it will be used to route packets via PPP link # if
you didn't specified the noipdefault option # change this line
to &lt;local_ip&gt;:&lt;remote_ip&gt; defaultroute # put
this if you want that PPP server will be # your default
router</literallayout>
</para>
<para><filename>/etc/ppp/login.chat.script</filename>:</para>
<para>(This should actually go into a single line.)</para>
<para>
<literallayout>ABORT BUSY ABORT 'NO CARRIER' "" AT OK
ATDT&lt;phone.number&gt; CONNECT "" TIMEOUT 10 ogin:-\\r-ogin:
&lt;login-id&gt; TIMEOUT 5 sword:
&lt;password&gt;</literallayout>
</para>
<para>Once these are installed and modified correctly, all you need
to do is</para>
<para><command>pppd</command>.</para>
<para><emphasis> This sample based primarily on information provided
by: Trev Roydhouse
&lt;Trev.Roydhouse@f401.n711.z3.fidonet.org&gt; and used by
permission.</emphasis></para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Working as a PPP server</title>
<para><filename>/etc/ppp/options</filename>: <literallayout>crtscts
# Hardware flow control netmask 255.255.255.0 #
netmask ( not required ) 192.114.208.20:192.114.208.165 # ip's
of local and remote hosts # local ip must be different from one
# you assigned to the ethernet ( or other ) # interface on your
machine. # remote IP is ip address that will be # assigned to
the remote machine domain ppp.foo.com # your domain
passive # wait for LCP modem
# modem line</literallayout>
</para>
<para>Following <filename>/etc/ppp/pppserv</filename> script will
enable ppp server on your machine <literallayout>#!/bin/sh ps ax
|grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk
'{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing
pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v
grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if
[ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid}
kill -9 ${pid} fi # reset ppp interface ifconfig ppp0 down
ifconfig ppp0 delete # enable autoanswer mode kermit -y
/etc/ppp/kermit.ans # run ppp pppd /dev/tty01
19200</literallayout>
</para>
<para>Use this <filename>/etc/ppp/pppservdown</filename> script to
stop ppp server: <literallayout>#!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep
-v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid}
kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep
kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ]
; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi
ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y
/etc/ppp/kermit.noans</literallayout>
</para>
<para>Following kermit script will enable/disable autoanswer mode
on your modem (<filename>/etc/ppp/kermit.ans</filename>):
<literallayout>set line /dev/tty01 set speed 19200 set file type
binary set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set
send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command
bytesize 8 set flow none pau 1 out +++ inp 5 OK out ATH0\13 inp
5 OK echo \13 out ATS0=1\13 ; change this to out ATS0=0\13
if you want to disable ; autoanswer mod inp 5 OK echo \13
exit</literallayout>
</para>
<para>This <filename>/etc/ppp/kermit.dial</filename> script is used
for dialing and authorizing on remote host. You will need to
customize it for your needs. Put your login and password in this
script , also you will need to change input statement depending on
responses from your modem and remote host. <literallayout>; ; put
the com line attached to the modem here: ; set line /dev/tty01 ;
; put the modem speed here: ; set speed 19200 set file type
binary ; full 8 bit file xfer set file names literal
set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set
term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none set modem
hayes set dial hangup off set carrier auto ; Then
SET CARRIER if necessary, set dial display on ; Then
SET DIAL if necessary, set input echo on set input timeout
proceed set input case ignore def \%x 0 ;
login prompt counter goto slhup :slcmd
; put the modem in command mode echo Put the modem in command
mode. clear ; Clear unread
characters from input buffer pause 1 output +++
; hayes escape sequence input 1 OK\13\10 ; wait for OK
if success goto slhup output \13 pause 1 output at\13 input 1
OK\13\10 if fail goto slcmd ; if modem doesn't
answer OK, try again :slhup ; hang
up the phone clear ; Clear unread
characters from input buffer pause 1 echo Hanging up the phone.
output ath0\13 ; hayes command for on hook
input 2 OK\13\10 if fail goto slcmd ; if no OK
answer, put modem in command mode :sldial
; dial the number pause 1 echo Dialing. output
atdt9,550311\13\10 ; put phone number here assign
\%x 0 ; zero the time counter :look clear
; Clear unread characters from input buffer increment \%x
; Count the seconds input 1 {CONNECT } if success goto sllogin
reinput 1 {NO CARRIER\13\10} if success goto sldial reinput 1
{NO DIALTONE\13\10} if success goto slnodial reinput 1 {\255} if
success goto slhup reinput 1 {\127} if success goto slhup if
&lt; \%x 60 goto look else goto slhup :sllogin
; login assign \%x 0 ; zero the time
counter pause 1 echo Looking for login prompt. :slloop increment
\%x ; Count the seconds clear
; Clear unread characters from input buffer output \13 ; ; put
your expected login prompt here: ; input 1 {Username: } if
success goto sluid reinput 1 {\255} if success goto slhup
reinput 1 {\127} if success goto slhup if &lt; \%x 10 goto
slloop ; try 10 times to get a login prompt else goto
slhup ; hang up and start again if 10
failures :sluid ; ; put your userid here: ; output ppp-login\13
input 1 {Password: } ; ; put your password here: ; output
ppp-password\13 input 1 {Entering SLIP mode.} echo quit
:slnodial echo \7No dialtone. Check the telephone line!\7 exit
1 ; local variables: ; mode: csh ; comment-start: "; " ;
comment-start-skip: "; " ; end:</literallayout>
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="slipc">
<title>Setting up a SLIP Client</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.asami;<!-- <br> -->8 Aug
1995.</emphasis></para>
<para>The following is one way to set up a FreeBSD machine for SLIP on
a static host network. For dynamic hostname assignments (i.e., your
address changes each time you dial up), you probably need to do
something much fancier.</para>
<para>First, determine which serial port your modem is connected to. I
have a symbolic link <emphasis remap=tt>/dev/modem -&gt;
cuaa1</emphasis>, and only use the modem name in my configuration
files. It can become quite cumbersome when you need to fix a bunch
of files in <filename>/etc</filename> and
<filename>.kermrc</filename>'s all over the system!</para>
<note>
<para><filename>/dev/cuaa0</filename> is COM1,
<filename>cuaa1</filename> is COM2, etc.</para>
</note>
<para>Make sure you have <literallayout>pseudo-device sl
1</literallayout> in your kernel's config file. It is included in
the <filename>GENERIC</filename> kernel, so this will not be a
problem unless you deleted it.</para>
<sect2>
<title>Things you have to do only once</title>
<para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Add your home machine, the gateway and nameservers to
your <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> file. Mine looks like
this: <literallayout>127.0.0.1 localhost
loghost 136.152.64.181 silvia.HIP.Berkeley.EDU
silvia.HIP silvia 136.152.64.1
inr-3.Berkeley.EDU inr-3 slip-gateway 128.32.136.9
ns1.Berkeley.edu ns1 128.32.136.12
ns2.Berkeley.edu ns2</literallayout> By the way, silvia is
the name of the car that I had when I was back in Japan (it
is called 2?0SX here in U.S.).
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Make sure you have <option>hosts</option> before <option>bind</option> in your
<filename>/etc/host.conf</filename>. Otherwise, funny things
may happen.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Edit the file <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>. Note
that you should edit the file
<filename>/etc/sysconfig</filename> instead if you are
running FreeBSD previous to version 2.2.2.
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Set your hostname by editing the line that says:
<literallayout>hostname=myname.my.domain</literallayout> You should give it your full Internet hostname.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Add sl0 to the list of network interfaces by
changing the line that says:
<literallayout>network_interfaces="lo0"</literallayout> to: <literallayout>network_interfaces="lo0 sl0"</literallayout>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Set the startup flags of sl0 by adding a line:
<literallayout>ifconfig_sl0="inet ${hostname}
slip-gateway netmask 0xffffff00 up"
</literallayout>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Designate the default router by changing the line:
<literallayout>defaultrouter=NO</literallayout> to:
<literallayout>defaultrouter=slip-gateway</literallayout>
</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Make a file <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> which
contains: <literallayout>domain HIP.Berkeley.EDU nameserver
128.32.136.9 nameserver 128.32.136.12</literallayout> As
you can see, these set up the nameserver hosts. Of course,
the actual domain names and addresses depend on your
environment.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Set the password for root and toor (and any other
accounts that does not have a password). Use passwd, do not
edit the <filename>/etc/passwd</filename> or
<filename>/etc/master.passwd</filename> files!
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Reboot your machine and make sure it comes up with the
correct hostname.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Making a SLIP connection</title>
<para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Dial up, type <command>slip</command> at the prompt, enter your machine
name and password. The things you need to enter depends on
your environment. I use kermit, with a script like this:
<literallayout># kermit setup set modem hayes set line
/dev/modem set speed 115200 set parity none set flow
rts/cts set terminal bytesize 8 set file type binary # The
next macro will dial up and login define slip dial
643-9600, input 10 =&gt;, if failure stop, - output
slip\x0d, input 10 Username:, if failure stop, - output
silvia\x0d, input 10 Password:, if failure stop, - output
***\x0d, echo \x0aCONNECTED\x0a</literallayout> (of
course, you have to change the hostname and password to fit
yours). Then you can just type <command>slip</command> from the kermit
prompt to get connected.</para>
<note>
<para>Leaving your password in plain text anywhere in the
filesystem is generally a BAD idea. Do it at your own
risk. I am just too lazy.</para>
</note>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Leave the kermit there (you can suspend it by <command>z</command>) and
as root, type <literallayout>slattach -h -c -s 115200
/dev/modem</literallayout> if you are able to <command>ping</command> hosts
on the other side of the router, you are connected! If it
does not work, you might want to try <option>-a</option> instead of <option>-c</option> as
an argument to slattach.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>How to shutdown the connection</title>
<para>Type <command>kill -INT `cat /var/run/slattach.modem.pid`</command> (as root)
to kill slattach. Then go back to kermit (<command>fg</command> if you suspended
it) and exit from it (<command>q</command>).</para>
<para>The slattach man page says you have to use <command>ifconfig sl0 down</command>
to mark the interface down, but this does not seem to make any
difference for me. (<command>ifconfig sl0</command> reports the same
thing.)</para>
<para>Some times, your modem might refuse to drop the carrier (mine
often does). In that case, simply start kermit and quit it again.
It usually goes out on the second try.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Troubleshooting</title>
<para>If it does not work, feel free to ask me. The things that
people tripped over so far:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Not using <option>-c</option> or <option>-a</option> in slattach (I have no idea why
this can be fatal, but adding this flag solved the problem
for at least one person)
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Using <option>s10</option> instead of <option>sl0</option> (might be hard to see the
difference on some fonts).
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Try <command>ifconfig sl0</command> to see your interface status. I get:
<literallayout>silvia# ifconfig sl0 sl0:
flags=10&lt;POINTOPOINT&gt; inet 136.152.64.181 --&gt;
136.152.64.1 netmask ffffff00</literallayout>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Also, <command>netstat -r</command> will give the
routing table, in case you get the "no route to host"
messages from ping. Mine looks like: <literallayout>silvia#
netstat -r Routing tables Destination Gateway
Flags Refs Use IfaceMTU Rtt Netmasks: (root
node) (root node) Route Tree for Protocol Family inet:
(root node) =&gt; default inr-3.Berkeley.EDU UG
8 224515 sl0 - - localhost.Berkel
localhost.Berkeley UH 5 42127 lo0 -
0.438 inr-3.Berkeley.E silvia.HIP.Berkele UH 1
0 sl0 - - silvia.HIP.Berke localhost.Berkeley
UGH 34 47641234 lo0 - 0.438 (root
node)</literallayout> (this is after transferring a bunch
of files, your numbers should be smaller).</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="slips">
<title>Setting up a SLIP Server</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.ghelmer;.<!-- <br> --> v1.0, 15 May
1995.</emphasis></para>
<para>This document provides suggestions for setting up SLIP Server
services on a FreeBSD system, which typically means configuring your
system to automatically startup connections upon login for remote
SLIP clients. The author has written this document based on his
experience; however, as your system and needs may be different, this
document may not answer all of your questions, and the author cannot
be responsible if you damage your system or lose data due to
attempting to follow the suggestions here.</para>
<para>This guide was originally written for SLIP Server services on a
FreeBSD 1.x system. It has been modified to reflect changes in the
pathnames and the removal of the SLIP interface compression flags in
early versions of FreeBSD 2.X, which appear to be the only major
changes between FreeBSD versions. If you do encounter mistakes in
this document, please email the author with enough information to
help correct the problem.</para>
<sect2
id="slips-prereqs">
<title>Prerequisites</title>
<para>This document is very technical in nature, so background
knowledge is required. It is assumed that you are familiar with
the TCP/IP network protocol, and in particular, network and node
addressing, network address masks, subnetting, routing, and
routing protocols, such as RIP. Configuring SLIP services on a
dial-up server requires a knowledge of these concepts, and if you
are not familiar with them, please read a copy of either Craig
Hunt's <emphasis>TCP/IP Network Administration</emphasis>
published by O'Reilly &amp; Associates, Inc. (ISBN Number
0-937175-82-X), or Douglas Comer's books on the TCP/IP
protocol.</para>
<para>It is further assumed that you have already setup your
modem(s) and configured the appropriate system files to allow
logins through your modems. If you have not prepared your system
for this yet, please see the tutorial for configuring dialup
services; if you have a World-Wide Web browser available, browse
the list of tutorials at <ulink
url="http://www.freebsd.org/">http://www.freebsd.org/</ulink>;
otherwise, check the place where you found this document for a
document named <filename>dialup.txt</filename> or something
similar. You may also want to check the manual pages for
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>sio</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> for information on the serial
port device driver and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ttys</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>,
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>gettytab</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>,
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>getty</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, &amp; <citerefentry><refentrytitle>init</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for
information relevant to configuring the system to accept logins on
modems, and perhaps <citerefentry><refentrytitle>stty</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> for information on
setting serial port parameters [such as <emphasis
remap=tt>clocal</emphasis> for directly-connected serial
interfaces].</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Quick Overview</title>
<para>In its typical configuration, using FreeBSD as a SLIP server
works as follows: a SLIP user dials up your FreeBSD SLIP Server
system and logs in with a special SLIP login ID that uses
<filename>/usr/sbin/sliplogin</filename> as the special user's
shell. The <command>sliplogin</command> program
browses the file <filename>/etc/sliphome/slip.hosts</filename> to
find a matching line for the special user, and if it finds a
match, connects the serial line to an available SLIP interface and
then runs the shell script
<filename>/etc/sliphome/slip.login</filename> to configure the
SLIP interface.</para>
<sect3>
<title>An Example of a SLIP Server Login</title>
<para>For example, if a SLIP user ID were <emphasis
remap=tt>Shelmerg</emphasis>, <emphasis
remap=tt>Shelmerg</emphasis>'s entry in
<filename>/etc/master.passwd</filename> would look something
like this (except it would be all on one line):</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>Shelmerg:password:1964:89::0:0:Guy Helmer - SLIP:
/usr/users/Shelmerg:/usr/sbin/sliplogin</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>and, when <emphasis remap=tt>Shelmerg</emphasis> logs in,
<command>sliplogin</command> will search
<filename>/etc/sliphome/slip.hosts</filename> for a line that
had a matching user ID; for example, there may be a line in
<filename>/etc/sliphome/slip.hosts</filename> that reads:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmer 0xfffffc00
autocomp</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para><command>sliplogin</command> will find that
matching line, hook the serial line into the next available SLIP
interface, and then execute
<filename>/etc/sliphome/slip.login</filename> like this:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>/etc/sliphome/slip.login 0 19200 Shelmerg dc-slip
sl-helmer 0xfffffc00 autocomp</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>If all goes well,
<filename>/etc/sliphome/slip.login</filename> will issue an
<command>ifconfig</command> for the SLIP interface to
which <command>sliplogin</command> attached itself
(slip interface 0, in the above example, which was the first
parameter in the list given to <filename>slip.login</filename>)
to set the local IP address (<literal>dc-slip</literal>), remote IP address (<literal>sl-helmer</literal>), network mask for the SLIP
interface (<literal>0xfffffc00</literal>), and any additional
flags (<literal>autocomp</literal>). If something
goes wrong, <command>sliplogin</command> usually logs
good informational messages via the daemon syslog facility,
which usually goes into <filename>/var/log/messages</filename>
(see the manual pages for <citerefentry><refentrytitle>syslogd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>syslog.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>, and perhaps check
<filename>/etc/syslog.conf</filename> to see to which files
<command>syslogd</command> is logging).</para>
<para>OK, enough of the examples -- let us dive into setting up
the system.</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Kernel Configuration</title>
<para>FreeBSD's default kernels usually come with two SLIP
interfaces defined (<emphasis remap=tt>sl0</emphasis> and
<emphasis remap=tt>sl1</emphasis>); you can use <command>netstat -i</command> to see whether these interfaces
are defined in your kernel.</para>
<para>Sample output from <command>netstat -i</command>:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>Name Mtu Network Address Ipkts Ierrs
Opkts Oerrs Coll ed0 1500 &lt;Link&gt;0.0.c0.2c.5f.4a
291311 0 174209 0 133 ed0 1500 138.247.224
ivory 291311 0 174209 0 133 lo0
65535 &lt;Link&gt; 79 0
79 0 0 lo0 65535 loop localhost
79 0 79 0 0 sl0* 296 &lt;Link&gt;
0 0 0 0 0 sl1* 296 &lt;Link&gt;
0 0 0 0 0</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>The <emphasis remap=tt>sl0</emphasis> and <emphasis
remap=tt>sl1</emphasis> interfaces shown in <command>netstat -i</command>'s output indicate that there are
two SLIP interfaces built into the kernel. (The asterisks after
the <literal>sl0</literal> and <literal>sl1</literal> indicate that the interfaces are
<quote>down</quote>.)</para>
<para>However, FreeBSD's default kernels do not come configured to
forward packets (ie, your FreeBSD machine will not act as a
router) due to Internet RFC requirements for Internet hosts (see
RFC's 1009 [Requirements for Internet Gateways], 1122
[Requirements for Internet Hosts -- Communication Layers], and
perhaps 1127 [A Perspective on the Host Requirements RFCs]), so if
you want your FreeBSD SLIP Server to act as a router, you will
have to edit the <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> file (called
<filename>/etc/sysconfig</filename> in FreeBSD releases prior to
2.2.2) and change the setting of the <emphasis
remap=bf>gateway</emphasis> variable to <option>YES</option>.
If you have an older system which predates even the
<filename>/etc/sysconfig</filename> file, then add the following
command: <literallayout>sysctl -w net.inet.ip.forwarding =
1</literallayout> to your <filename>/etc/rc.local</filename>
file.</para>
<para>You will then need to reboot for the new settings to take
effect.</para>
<para>You will notice that near the end of the default kernel
configuration file (<filename>/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC</filename>)
is a line that reads:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>pseudo-device sl 2</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>which is the line that defines the number of SLIP devices
available in the kernel; the number at the end of the line is the
maximum number of SLIP connections that may be operating
simultaneously.</para>
<para>Please refer to <xref linkend="kernelconfig"
remap="Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel"> for help in
reconfiguring your kernel.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Sliplogin Configuration</title>
<para>As mentioned earlier, there are three files in the
<filename>/etc/sliphome</filename> directory that are part of the
configuration for <filename>/usr/sbin/sliplogin</filename> (see
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>sliplogin</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for the actual manual page for
<command>sliplogin</command>):
<filename>slip.hosts</filename>, which defines the SLIP users
&amp; their associated IP addresses;
<filename>slip.login</filename>, which usually just configures the
SLIP interface; and (optionally) <filename>slip.logout</filename>,
which undoes <filename>slip.login</filename>'s effects when the
serial connection is terminated.</para>
<sect3>
<title><filename>slip.hosts</filename> Configuration</title>
<para><filename>/etc/sliphome/slip.hosts</filename> contains lines
which have at least four items, separated by whitespace:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para> SLIP user's login ID</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Local address (local to the SLIP server) of the SLIP
link</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Remote address of the SLIP link</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Network mask</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>The local and remote addresses may be host names (resolved
to IP addresses by <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> or by the
domain name service, depending on your specifications in
<filename>/etc/host.conf</filename>), and I believe the network
mask may be a name that can be resolved by a lookup into
<filename>/etc/networks</filename>. On a sample system,
<filename>/etc/sliphome/slip.hosts</filename> looks like
this:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>----- begin /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts ----- # # login
local-addr remote-addr mask opt1 opt2
#
(normal,compress,noicmp) # Shelmerg dc-slip
sl-helmerg 0xfffffc00 autocomp ----- end
/etc/sliphome/slip.hosts ------</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>At the end of the line is one or more of the options.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para> <literal>normal</literal> - no header
compression</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> <literal>compress</literal> - compress
headers</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> <literal>autocomp</literal> - compress
headers if the remote end allows it</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> <literal>noicmp</literal> - disable ICMP
packets (so any <quote>ping</quote> packets will be dropped instead
of using up your bandwidth)</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>Note that <command>sliplogin</command> under
early releases of FreeBSD 2 ignored the options that FreeBSD 1.x
recognized, so the options <emphasis remap=tt>normal</emphasis>,
<emphasis remap=tt>compress</emphasis>, <emphasis
remap=tt>autocomp</emphasis>, and <emphasis
remap=tt>noicmp</emphasis> had no effect until support was
added in FreeBSD 2.2 (unless your
<filename>slip.login</filename> script included code to make use
of the flags).</para>
<para>Your choice of local and remote addresses for your SLIP
links depends on whether you are going to dedicate a TCP/IP
subnet or if you are going to use <quote>proxy ARP</quote> on your SLIP
server (it is not <quote>true</quote> proxy ARP, but that is the
terminology used in this document to describe it). If you are
not sure which method to select or how to assign IP addresses,
please refer to the TCP/IP books referenced in the <xref
linkend="slips-prereqs" remap="slips-prereqs"> section
and/or consult your IP network manager.</para>
<para>If you are going to use a separate subnet for your SLIP
clients, you will need to allocate the subnet number out of your
assigned IP network number and assign each of your SLIP client's
IP numbers out of that subnet. Then, you will probably either
need to configure a static route to the SLIP subnet via your
SLIP server on your nearest IP router, or install <command>gated</command> on your FreeBSD SLIP server and
configure it to talk the appropriate routing protocols to your
other routers to inform them about your SLIP server's route to
the SLIP subnet.</para>
<para>Otherwise, if you will use the <quote>proxy ARP</quote> method, you
will need to assign your SLIP client's IP addresses out of your
SLIP server's Ethernet subnet, and you will also need to adjust
your <filename>/etc/sliphome/slip.login</filename> and
<filename>/etc/sliphome/slip.logout</filename> scripts to use
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>arp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to manage the proxy-ARP entries in the
SLIP server's ARP table.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title><filename>slip.login</filename> Configuration</title>
<para>The typical <filename>/etc/sliphome/slip.login</filename>
file looks like this:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>----- begin /etc/sliphome/slip.login ----- #!/bin/sh -
# # @(#)slip.login 5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90 # # generic
login file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with #
the parameters: # 1 2 3 4
5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname
local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1
inet $4 $5 netmask $6 ----- end /etc/sliphome/slip.login
-----</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>This <filename>slip.login</filename> file merely ifconfig's
the appropriate SLIP interface with the local and remote
addresses and network mask of the SLIP interface.</para>
<para>If you have decided to use the <quote>proxy ARP</quote> method (instead
of using a separate subnet for your SLIP clients), your
<filename>/etc/sliphome/slip.login</filename> file will need to
look something like this:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>----- begin /etc/sliphome/slip.login for "proxy ARP"
----- #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.login 5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90
# # generic login file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes
this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3
4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed
loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args #
/sbin/ifconfig sl$1 inet $4 $5 netmask $6 # Answer ARP
requests for the SLIP client with our Ethernet addr
/usr/sbin/arp -s $5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pub ----- end
/etc/sliphome/slip.login for "proxy ARP" -----</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>The additional line in this <filename>slip.login</filename>,
<command>arp -s &#36;5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pub</command>, creates
an ARP entry in the SLIP server's ARP table. This ARP entry
causes the SLIP server to respond with the SLIP server's
Ethernet MAC address whenever a another IP node on the Ethernet
asks to speak to the SLIP client's IP address.</para>
<para>When using the example above, be sure to replace the
Ethernet MAC address (<hostid role="mac">00:11:22:33:44:55</hostid>) with the MAC address of
your system's Ethernet card, or your <quote>proxy ARP</quote> will
definitely not work! You can discover your SLIP server's
Ethernet MAC address by looking at the results of running
<command>netstat -i</command>; the second line of the output
should look something like:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>ed0 1500 &lt;Link&gt;0.2.c1.28.5f.4a 191923
0 129457 0 116 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>which indicates that this particular system's Ethernet MAC
address is <hostid role="mac">00:02:c1:28:5f:4a</hostid> --
the periods in the Ethernet MAC address given by
<command>netstat -i</command> must be changed to colons and
leading zeros should be added to each single-digit hexadecimal
number to convert the address into the form that
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>arp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> desires; see the manual page on
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>arp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for complete information on
usage.</para>
<note>
<para>When you create
<filename>/etc/sliphome/slip.login</filename> and
<filename>/etc/sliphome/slip.logout</filename>, the
<quote>execute</quote> bit (ie, <command>chmod 755
/etc/sliphome/slip.login
/etc/sliphome/slip.logout</command>) must be set, or
<command>sliplogin</command> will be unable to execute
it.</para>
</note>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title><filename>slip.logout</filename> Configuration</title>
<para><filename>/etc/sliphome/slip.logout</filename> is not
strictly needed (unless you are implementing <quote>proxy ARP</quote>), but
if you decide to create it, this is an example of a basic
<filename>slip.logout</filename> script:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>----- begin /etc/sliphome/slip.logout ----- #!/bin/sh
- # # slip.logout # # logout file for a slip line.
sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1
2 3 4 5 6 7-n #
slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask
opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 down ----- end
/etc/sliphome/slip.logout -----</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>If you are using <quote>proxy ARP</quote>, you will want to have
<filename>/etc/sliphome/slip.logout</filename> remove the ARP
entry for the SLIP client:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>----- begin /etc/sliphome/slip.logout for "proxy ARP"
----- #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.logout # # logout file
for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the
parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5
6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr
remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 down # Quit
answering ARP requests for the SLIP client /usr/sbin/arp -d
$5 ----- end /etc/sliphome/slip.logout for "proxy ARP"
-----</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>The <command>arp -d &#36;5</command> removes the ARP entry
that the <quote>proxy ARP</quote> <filename>slip.login</filename> added
when the SLIP client logged in.</para>
<para>It bears repeating: make sure
<filename>/etc/sliphome/slip.logout</filename> has the execute
bit set for after you create it (ie, <command>chmod
755 /etc/sliphome/slip.logout</command>).</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Routing Considerations</title>
<para>If you are not using the <quote>proxy ARP</quote> method for routing
packets between your SLIP clients and the rest of your network
(and perhaps the Internet), you will probably either have to add
static routes to your closest default router(s) to route your SLIP
client subnet via your SLIP server, or you will probably need to
install and configure <command>gated</command> on your
FreeBSD SLIP server so that it will tell your routers via
appropriate routing protocols about your SLIP subnet.</para>
<sect3>
<title>Static Routes</title>
<para>Adding static routes to your nearest default routers can be
troublesome (or impossible, if you do not have authority to do
so...). If you have a multiple-router network in your
organization, some routers, such as Cisco and Proteon, may not
only need to be configured with the static route to the SLIP
subnet, but also need to be told which static routes to tell
other routers about, so some expertise and
troubleshooting/tweaking may be necessary to get
static-route-based routing to work.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Running gated</title>
<para>An alternative to the headaches of static routes is to
install <command>gated</command> on your FreeBSD SLIP
server and configure it to use the appropriate routing protocols
(RIP/OSPF/BGP/EGP) to tell other routers about your SLIP subnet.
You can use <command>gated</command> from the
<xref linkend="ports" remap="ports collection"> or retrieve and
build it yourself from <ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.gated.merit.edu/research.and.development/gated/">the GateD anonymous ftp site</ulink>; I believe the current version as of this writing is <filename>gated-R3_5Alpha_8.tar.Z</filename>, which includes support for FreeBSD <quote>out-of-the-box</quote>. Complete information and documentation on <command>gated</command> is available on the Web starting at <ulink URL="http://www.gated.merit.edu/">the Merit GateD Consortium</ulink>. Compile and install it, and then write a <filename>/etc/gated.conf</filename> file to configure your gated; here is a sample, similar to what the author used on a FreeBSD SLIP server:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>----- begin sample /etc/gated.conf for gated version
3.5Alpha5 ----- # # gated configuration file for dc.dsu.edu;
for gated version 3.5alpha5 # Only broadcast RIP information
for xxx.xxx.yy out the ed Ethernet interface # # # tracing
options # traceoptions "/var/tmp/gated.output" replace size
100k files 2 general ; rip yes { interface sl noripout
noripin ; interface ed ripin ripout version 1 ; traceoptions
route ; } ; # # Turn on a bunch of tracing info for the
interface to the kernel: kernel { traceoptions remnants
request routes info interface ; } ; # # Propagate the route
to xxx.xxx.yy out the Ethernet interface via RIP # export
proto rip interface ed { proto direct { xxx.xxx.yy mask
255.255.252.0 metric 1; # SLIP connections } ; } ; # #
Accept routes from RIP via ed Ethernet interfaces import
proto rip interface ed { all ; } ; ----- end sample
/etc/gated.conf -----</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>The above sample <filename>gated.conf</filename> file
broadcasts routing information regarding the SLIP subnet
<emphasis remap="tt">xxx.xxx.yy</emphasis> via RIP onto the
Ethernet; if you are using a different Ethernet driver than the
<emphasis remap=tt>ed</emphasis> driver, you will need to change
the references to the <emphasis remap=tt>ed</emphasis> interface
appropriately. This sample file also sets up tracing to
<filename>/var/tmp/gated.output</filename> for debugging
<command>gated</command>'s activity; you can
certainly turn off the tracing options if <command>gated</command> works OK for you. You will need to
change the <emphasis remap="tt">xxx.xxx.yy</emphasis>'s into the
network address of your own SLIP subnet (be sure to change the
net mask in the <literal>proto direct</literal>
clause as well).</para>
<para>When you get <command>gated</command> built and
installed and create a configuration file for it, you will need
to run <command>gated</command> in place of <command>routed</command> on your FreeBSD system; change the
<filename>routed/gated</filename> startup parameters in
<filename>/etc/netstart</filename> as appropriate for your
system. Please see the manual page for <command>gated</command> for information on <command>gated</command>'s command-line parameters.</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Acknowledgments</title>
<para>Thanks to these people for comments and advice regarding this
tutorial:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>&a.wilko;</term>
<listitem>
<para></para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Piero Serini</term>
<listitem>
<para>&lt;Piero@Strider.Inet.IT&gt;</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
</chapter>
<chapter>
<title>Advanced Networking</title>
<sect1
id="routing">
<title>Gateways and Routes</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.gryphon;.<!-- <br> -->6 October
1995.</emphasis></para>
<para>For one machine to be able to find another, there must be a
mechanism in place to describe how to get from one to the other.
This is called Routing. A <quote>route</quote> is a defined pair of addresses:
a <emphasis remap=bf>destination</emphasis> and a <emphasis
remap=bf>gateway</emphasis>. The pair indicates that if you are
trying to get to this <emphasis>destination</emphasis>, send along
through this <emphasis>gateway</emphasis>. There are three types of
destinations: individual hosts, subnets, and <quote>default</quote>. The
<quote>default route</quote> is used if none of the other routes apply. We will
talk a little bit more about default routes later on. There are
also three types of gateways: individual hosts, interfaces (also
called <quote>links</quote>), and ethernet hardware addresses.</para>
<sect2>
<title>An example</title>
<para>To illustrate different aspects of routing, we will use the
following example which is the output of the command
<command>netstat -r</command>:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>Destination Gateway Flags Refs
Use Netif Expire default outside-gw UGSc
37 418 ppp0 localhost localhost UH
0 181 lo0 test0 0:e0:b5:36:cf:4f UHLW
5 63288 ed0 77 10.20.30.255 link#1
UHLW 1 2421 foobar.com link#1 UC
0 0 host1 0:e0:a8:37:8:1e UHLW 3
4601 lo0 host2 0:e0:a8:37:8:1e UHLW
0 5 lo0 =&gt; host2.foobar.com link#1
UC 0 0 224 link#1 UC
0 0</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>The first two lines specify the default route (which we will
cover in the next section) and the <hostid>localhost</hostid> route.</para>
<para>The interface (<emphasis remap=tt>Netif</emphasis> column)
that it specifies to use for <literal>localhost</literal> is <emphasis
remap=tt>lo0</emphasis>, also known as the loopback device. This
says to keep all traffic for this destination internal, rather
than sending it out over the LAN, since it will only end up back
where it started anyway.</para>
<para>The next thing that stands out are the <hostid role="mac">0:e0:...</hostid> addresses. These are ethernet
hardware addresses. FreeBSD will automatically identify any hosts
(<emphasis remap=tt>test0</emphasis> in the example) on the local
ethernet and add a route for that host, directly to it over the
ethernet interface, <emphasis remap=tt>ed0</emphasis>. There is
also a timeout (<literal>Expire</literal> column)
associated with this type of route, which is used if we fail to
hear from the host in a specific amount of time. In this case the
route will be automatically deleted. These hosts are identified
using a mechanism known as RIP (Routing Information Protocol),
which figures out routes to local hosts based upon a shortest path
determination.</para>
<para>FreeBSD will also add subnet routes for the local subnet
(<hostid role="ipaddr">10.20.30.255</hostid> is the broadcast
address for the subnet <hostid role="ipaddr">10.20.30</hostid>, and
<hostid role="domainname">foobar.com</hostid> is the domain name
associated with that subnet). The designation <literal>link#1</literal> refers to the first ethernet card in
the machine. You will notice no additional interface is specified
for those.</para>
<para>Both of these groups (local network hosts and local subnets)
have their routes automatically configured by a daemon called
<command>routed</command>. If this is not run, then
only routes which are statically defined (ie. entered explicitly)
will exist.</para>
<para>The <literal>host1</literal> line refers to our
host, which it knows by ethernet address. Since we are the
sending host, FreeBSD knows to use the loopback interface
(<emphasis remap=tt>lo0</emphasis>) rather than sending it out
over the ethernet interface.</para>
<para>The two <literal>host2</literal> lines are an
example of what happens when we use an ifconfig alias (see the
section of ethernet for reasons why we would do this). The
<literal>=&gt;</literal> symbol after the <literal>lo0</literal> interface says that not only are we
using the loopback (since this is address also refers to the local
host), but specifically it is an alias. Such routes only show up
on the host that supports the alias; all other hosts on the local
network will simply have a <literal>link#1</literal>
line for such.</para>
<para>The final line (destination subnet <literal>224</literal>) deals with MultiCasting, which will be
covered in a another section.</para>
<para>The other column that we should talk about are the <literal>Flags</literal>. Each route has different attributes
that are described in the column. Below is a short table of some
of these flags and their meanings:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>U</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Up:</emphasis> The route is
active.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>H</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Host:</emphasis> The route
destination is a single host.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>G</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Gateway:</emphasis> Send anything
for this destination on to this remote system, which will
figure out from there where to send it.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>S</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Static:</emphasis> This route was
configured manually, not automatically generated by the
system.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>C</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Clone:</emphasis> Generates a new
route based upon this route for machines we connect to.
This type of route is normally used for local
networks.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>W</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>WasCloned</emphasis> Indicated a
route that was auto-configured based upon a local area
network (Clone) route.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>L</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Link:</emphasis> Route involves
references to ethernet hardware.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Default routes</title>
<para>When the local system needs to make a connection to remote
host, it checks the routing table to determine if a known path
exists. If the remote host falls into a subnet that we know how to
reach (Cloned routes), then the system checks to see if it can
connect along that interface.</para>
<para>If all known paths fail, the system has one last option: the
<emphasis remap=bf>default</emphasis> route. This route is a
special type of gateway route (usually the only one present in the
system), and is always marked with a <literal>c</literal> in the flags field. For hosts on a
local area network, this gateway is set to whatever machine has a
direct connection to the outside world (whether via PPP link, or
your hardware device attached to a dedicated data line).</para>
<para>If you are configuring the default route for a machine which
itself is functioning as the gateway to the outside world, then
the default route will be the gateway machine at your Internet
Service Provider's (ISP) site.</para>
<para>Let us look at an example of default routes. This is a common
configuration:
<informalexample>
<screen>[Local2] &lt;--ether--&gt; [Local1] &lt;--PPP--&gt;
[ISP-Serv] &lt;--ether--&gt; [T1-GW]</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>The hosts <hostid>Local1</hostid> and <hostid>Local2</hostid> are at your site, with the formed
being your PPP connection to your ISP's Terminal Server. Your ISP
has a local network at their site, which has, among other things,
the server where you connect and a hardware device (T1-GW)
attached to the ISP's Internet feed.</para>
<para>The default routes for each of your machines will be:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>host default gateway interface ----
--------------- --------- Local2 Local1
ethernet Local1 T1-GW PPP</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>A common question is <quote>Why (or how) would we set the T1-GW to
be the default gateway for Local1, rather than the ISP server it
is connected to?</quote>.</para>
<para>Remember, since the PPP interface is using an address on the
ISP's local network for your side of the connection, routes for
any other machines on the ISP's local network will be
automatically generated. Hence, you will already know how to reach
the T1-GW machine, so there is no need for the intermediate step
of sending traffic to the ISP server.</para>
<para>As a final note, it is common to use the address <hostid
role="ipaddr">...1</hostid> as the gateway address for your local
network. So (using the same example), if your local class-C
address space was <hostid role="ipaddr">10.20.30</hostid> and your
ISP was using <hostid role="ipaddr">10.9.9</hostid> then the
default routes would be:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>Local2 (10.20.30.2) --&gt; Local1
(10.20.30.1) Local1 (10.20.30.1, 10.9.9.30) --&gt; T1-GW
(10.9.9.1)</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Dual homed hosts</title>
<para>There is one other type of configuration that we should cover,
and that is a host that sits on two different networks.
Technically, any machine functioning as a gateway (in the example
above, using a PPP connection) counts as a dual-homed host. But
the term is really only used to refer to a machine that sits on
two local-area networks.</para>
<para>In one case, the machine as two ethernet cards, each having an
address on the separate subnets. Alternately, the machine may only
have one ethernet card, and be using ifconfig aliasing. The former
is used if two physically separate ethernet networks are in use,
the latter if there is one physical network segment, but two
logically separate subnets.</para>
<para>Either way, routing tables are set up so that each subnet
knows that this machine is the defined gateway (inbound route) to
the other subnet. This configuration, with the machine acting as
a Bridge between the two subnets, is often used when we need to
implement packet filtering or firewall security in either or both
directions.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Routing propagation</title>
<para>We have already talked about how we define our routes to the
outside world, but not about how the outside world finds
us.</para>
<para>We already know that routing tables can be set up so that all
traffic for a particular address space (in our examples, a class-C
subnet) can be sent to a particular host on that network, which
will forward the packets inbound.</para>
<para>When you get an address space assigned to your site, your
service provider will set up their routing tables so that all
traffic for your subnet will be sent down your PPP link to your
site. But how do sites across the country know to send to your
ISP?</para>
<para>There is a system (much like the distributed DNS information)
that keeps track of all assigned address-spaces, and defines their
point of connection to the Internet Backbone. The <quote>Backbone</quote> are
the main trunk lines that carry Internet traffic across the
country, and around the world. Each backbone machine has a copy of
a master set of tables, which direct traffic for a particular
network to a specific backbone carrier, and from there down the
chain of service providers until it reaches your network.</para>
<para>It is the task of your service provider to advertise to the
backbone sites that they are the point of connection (and thus the
path inward) for your site. This is known as route
propagation.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Troubleshooting</title>
<para>Sometimes, there is a problem with routing propagation, and
some sites are unable to connect to you. Perhaps the most useful
command for trying to figure out where a routing is breaking down
is the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>traceroute</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> command. It is equally
useful if you cannot seem to make a connection to a remote machine
(ie. <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ping</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> fails).</para>
<para>The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>traceroute</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> command is run with the
name of the remote host you are trying to connect to. It will show
the gateway hosts along the path of the attempt, eventually either
reaching the target host, or terminating because of a lack of
connection.</para>
<para>For more information, see the manual page for
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>traceroute</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="nfs">
<title>NFS</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.jlind;.</emphasis></para>
<para>Certain Ethernet adapters for ISA PC systems have limitations
which can lead to serious network problems, particularly with NFS.
This difficulty is not specific to FreeBSD, but FreeBSD systems are
affected by it.</para>
<para>The problem nearly always occurs when (FreeBSD) PC systems are
networked with high-performance workstations, such as those made by
Silicon Graphics, Inc., and Sun Microsystems, Inc. The NFS mount
will work fine, and some operations may succeed, but suddenly the
server will seem to become unresponsive to the client, even though
requests to and from other systems continue to be processed. This
happens to the client system, whether the client is the FreeBSD
system or the workstation. On many systems, there is no way to shut
down the client gracefully once this problem has manifested itself.
The only solution is often to reset the client, because the NFS
situation cannot be resolved.</para>
<para>Though the <quote>correct</quote> solution is to get a higher performance and
capacity Ethernet adapter for the FreeBSD system, there is a simple
workaround that will allow satisfactory operation. If the FreeBSD
system is the SERVER, include the option <option>-w=1024</option> on the mount from
the client. If the FreeBSD system is the CLIENT, then mount the NFS
file system with the option <option>-r=1024</option>. These options may be
specified using the fourth field of the fstab entry on the client
for automatic mounts, or by using the <option>-o</option> parameter of the mount
command for manual mounts.</para>
<para>It should be noted that there is a different problem, sometimes
mistaken for this one, when the NFS servers and clients are on
different networks. If that is the case, make CERTAIN that your
routers are routing the necessary UDP information, or you will not
get anywhere, no matter what else you are doing.</para>
<para>In the following examples, "fastws" is the host (interface) name
of a high-performance workstation, and "freebox" is the host
(interface) name of a FreeBSD system with a lower-performance
Ethernet adapter. Also, <filename>/sharedfs</filename> will be the exported NFS
filesystem (see <command>man exports</command>), and <filename>/project</filename> will be the mount
point on the client for the exported file system. In all cases,
note that additional options, such as <option>hard</option> or <option>soft</option> and <option>bg</option> may
be desirable in your application.</para>
<para>Examples for the FreeBSD system ("freebox") as the client: in
<filename>/etc/fstab</filename> on freebox: fastws:/sharedfs
/project nfs rw,-r=1024 0 0 as a manual mount command on freebox:
mount -t nfs -o -r=1024 fastws:/sharedfs /project</para>
<para>Examples for the FreeBSD system as the server: in
<filename>/etc/fstab</filename> on fastws: freebox:/sharedfs
/project nfs rw,-w=1024 0 0 as a manual mount command on fastws:
mount -t nfs -o -w=1024 freebox:/sharedfs /project</para>
<para>Nearly any 16-bit Ethernet adapter will allow operation without
the above restrictions on the read or write size.</para>
<para>For anyone who cares, here is what happens when the failure
occurs, which also explains why it is unrecoverable. NFS typically
works with a <quote>block</quote> size of 8k (though it may do fragments of
smaller sizes). Since the maximum Ethernet packet is around 1500
bytes, the NFS <quote>block</quote> gets split into multiple Ethernet packets,
even though it is still a single unit to the upper-level code, and
must be received, assembled, and ACKNOWLEDGED as a unit. The
high-performance workstations can pump out the packets which
comprise the NFS unit one right after the other, just as close
together as the standard allows. On the smaller, lower capacity
cards, the later packets overrun the earlier packets of the same
unit before they can be transferred to the host and the unit as a
whole cannot be reconstructed or acknowledged. As a result, the
workstation will time out and try again, but it will try again with
the entire 8K unit, and the process will be repeated, ad
infinitum.</para>
<para>By keeping the unit size below the Ethernet packet size
limitation, we ensure that any complete Ethernet packet received can
be acknowledged individually, avoiding the deadlock
situation.</para>
<para>Overruns may still occur when a high-performance workstations is
slamming data out to a PC system, but with the better cards, such
overruns are not guaranteed on NFS "units". When an overrun occurs,
the units affected will be retransmitted, and there will be a fair
chance that they will be received, assembled, and acknowledged.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="diskless">
<title>Diskless Operation</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.martin;.</emphasis></para>
<para><filename>netboot.com/netboot.rom</filename> allow you to boot
your FreeBSD machine over the network and run FreeBSD without having
a disk on your client. Under 2.0 it is now possible to have local
swap. Swapping over NFS is also still supported.</para>
<para>Supported Ethernet cards include: Western Digital/SMC 8003,
8013, 8216 and compatibles; NE1000/NE2000 and compatibles (requires
recompile)</para>
<sect2>
<title>Setup Instructions</title>
<para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para> Find a machine that will be your server. This machine
will require enough disk space to hold the FreeBSD 2.0
binaries and have bootp, tftp and NFS services available.
Tested machines:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>HP9000/8xx running HP-UX 9.04 or later (pre 9.04
doesn't work)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Sun/Solaris 2.3. (you may need to get
bootp)</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Set up a bootp server to provide the client with IP,
gateway, netmask.
<informalexample>
<screen>diskless:\ :ht=ether:\ :ha=0000c01f848a:\
:sm=255.255.255.0:\ :hn:\ :ds=192.1.2.3:\
:ip=192.1.2.4:\ :gw=192.1.2.5:\ :vm=rfc1048:</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Set up a TFTP server (on same machine as bootp server)
to provide booting information to client. The name of this
file is <filename>cfg.X.X.X.X</filename> (or
<filename>/tftpboot/cfg.X.X.X.X</filename>, it will try
both) where <filename>X.X.X.X</filename> is the IP address
of the client. The contents of this file can be any valid
netboot commands. Under 2.0, netboot has the following
commands:
<informalexample>
<screen>help - print help list ip
&lt;X.X.X.X&gt; - print/set client's IP
address server &lt;X.X.X.X&gt; - print/set bootp/tftp
server address netmask &lt;X.X.X.X&gt; - print/set
netmask hostname &lt;name&gt; - print/set
hostname kernel &lt;name&gt; - print/set
kernel name rootfs &lt;ip:/fs&gt; - print/set
root filesystem swapfs &lt;ip:/fs&gt; -
print/set swap filesystem swapsize &lt;size&gt;
- set diskless swapsize in Kbytes diskboot
- boot from disk autoboot - continue boot
process trans &lt;on|off&gt; - turn
transceiver on|off flags [bcdhsv] - set boot
flags</screen>
</informalexample> A typical completely diskless cfg file
might contain:
<informalexample>
<screen>rootfs 192.1.2.3:/rootfs/myclient swapfs
192.1.2.3:/swapfs swapsize 20000 hostname
myclient.mydomain</screen>
</informalexample> A cfg file for a machine with local swap
might contain:
<informalexample>
<screen>rootfs 192.1.2.3:/rootfs/myclient hostname
myclient.mydomain</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Ensure that your NFS server has exported the root (and
swap if applicable) filesystems to your client, and that the
client has root access to these filesystems A typical
<filename>/etc/exports</filename> file on FreeBSD might look
like:
<informalexample>
<screen>/rootfs/myclient -maproot=0:0 myclient.mydomain
/swapfs -maproot=0:0 myclient.mydomain</screen>
</informalexample> And on HP-UX:
<informalexample>
<screen>/rootfs/myclient -root=myclient.mydomain /swapfs
-root=myclient.mydomain</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If you are swapping over NFS (completely diskless
configuration) create a swap file for your client using
<command>dd</command>. If your <command>swapfs</command> command has the arguments
<filename>/swapfs</filename> and the size 20000 as in the
example above, the swapfile for myclient will be called
<filename>/swapfs/swap.X.X.X.X</filename> where
<filename>X.X.X.X</filename> is the client's IP addr, eg:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/swapfs/swap.192.1.2.4 bs=1k
count=20000</screen>
</informalexample> Also, the client's swap space might
contain sensitive information once swapping starts, so make
sure to restrict read and write access to this file to
prevent unauthorized access:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; chmod 0600 /swapfs/swap.192.1.2.4</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Unpack the root filesystem in the directory the client
will use for its root filesystem
(<filename>/rootfs/myclient</filename> in the example
above).
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para> On HP-UX systems: The server should be running
HP-UX 9.04 or later for HP9000/800 series machines.
Prior versions do not allow the creation of device
files over NFS.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> When extracting <filename>/dev</filename> in
<filename>/rootfs/myclient</filename>, beware that
some systems (HPUX) will not create device files that
FreeBSD is happy with. You may have to go to single
user mode on the first bootup (press control-c during
the bootup phase), cd <filename>/dev</filename> and do
a <command>sh ./MAKEDEV all</command>
from the client to fix this.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Run <filename>netboot.com</filename> on the client or
make an EPROM from the <filename>netboot.rom</filename>
file</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Using Shared <filename>/</filename> and
<filename>/usr</filename> filesystems</title>
<para>At present there isn't an officially sanctioned way of doing
this, although I have been using a shared
<filename>/usr</filename> filesystem and individual
<filename>/</filename> filesystems for each client. If anyone has
any suggestions on how to do this cleanly, please let me and/or
the &a.core; know.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Compiling netboot for specific setups</title>
<para>Netboot can be compiled to support NE1000/2000 cards by
changing the configuration in
<filename>/sys/i386/boot/netboot/Makefile</filename>. See the
comments at the top of this file.</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="isdn">
<title>ISDN</title>
<para><emphasis>Last modified by &a.wlloyd;</emphasis>.</para>
<para>A good resource for information on ISDN technology and hardware
is <ulink URL="http://alumni.caltech.edu/~dank/isdn/">Dan Kegel's
ISDN Page</ulink>.</para>
<para>A quick simple roadmap to ISDN follows:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>If you live in Europe I suggest you investigate the ISDN
card section.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If you are planning to use ISDN primarily to connect to
the Internet with an Internet Provider on a dialup
non-dedicated basis, I suggest you look into Terminal
Adapters. This will give you the most flexibility, with the
fewest problems, if you change providers.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If you are connecting two lans together, or connecting to
the Internet with a dedicated ISDN connection, I suggest you
consider the stand alone router/bridge option.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>Cost is a significant factor in determining what solution you
will choose. The following options are listed from least expensive
to most expensive.</para>
<sect2>
<title>ISDN Cards</title>
<para><emphasis>Original Contribution by &a.hm;.</emphasis></para>
<para>This section is really only relevant to European ISDN users.
The cards supported are not yet(?) available for North American
ISDN standards.</para>
<para>You should be aware that this code is largely under
development. Specifically, drivers have only been written for two
manufacturers cards.</para>
<para>PC ISDN cards support the full bandwidth of ISDN, 128Kbs.
These cards are often the least expensive type of ISDN equipment.
</para>
<para>Under FreeBSD 2.1.0 and 2.1.5, there is early unfinished ISDN
code under <filename>/usr/src/gnu/isdn</filename>. This code is
out of date and should not be used. If you want to go this route,
get the bisdn stuff. This code has been removed from the main
source tree starting with FreeBSD 2.2.</para>
<para>There is the bisdn ISDN package available from <ulink
URL="ftp://hub.freebsd.org/pub/bisdn">hub.freebsd.org</ulink>
supporting FreeBSD 2.1R, FreeBSD-current and NetBSD. The latest
source can be found on the above mentioned ftp server under
directory isdn as file bisdn-097.tar.gz.</para>
<para>There are drivers for the following cards:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Currently all (passive) Teles cards and their clones are
supported for the EuroISDN (DSS1) and 1TR6 protocols.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Dr. Neuhaus - Niccy 1016</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>There are several limitations with the bisdn stuff.
Specifically the following features usually associated with ISDN
are not supported.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>No PPP support, only raw hdlc. This means you cannot
connect to most standalone routers.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Bridging Control Protocol not supported.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Multiple cards are not supported.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>No bandwidth on demand.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>No channel bundling.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>A majordomo maintained mailing list is available. To join the
list, send mail to &a.majordomo; and specify:
<literallayout>subscribe freebsd-isdn</literallayout> In the body
of your message. </para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>ISDN Terminal Adapters</title>
<para>Terminal adapters(TA), are to ISDN what modems are to regular
phone lines.</para>
<para>Most TA's use the standard hayes modem AT command set, and can
be used as a drop in replacement for a modem.</para>
<para>A TA will operate basically the same as a modem except
connection and throughput speeds will be much faster than your old
modem. You will need to configure <xref linkend="ppp"
remap="PPP"> exactly the
same as for a modem setup. Make sure you set your serial speed as
high as possible.</para>
<para>The main advantage of using a TA to connect to an Internet
Provider is that you can do Dynamic PPP. As IP address space
becomes more and more scarce, most providers are not willing to
provide you with a static IP anymore. Most standalone routers are
not able to accommodate dynamic IP allocation.</para>
<para>TA's completely rely on the PPP daemon that you are running
for their features and stability of connection. This allows you
to upgrade easily from using a modem to ISDN on a FreeBSD machine,
if you already have PPP setup. However, at the same time any
problems you experienced with the PPP program and are going to
persist.</para>
<para>If you want maximum stability, use the kernel <xref
linkend="ppp" remap="PPP"> option, not the user-land <xref
linkend="userppp" remap="iijPPP">.
</para>
<para>The following TA's are know to work with FreeBSD.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Motorola BitSurfer and Bitsurfer Pro</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Adtran</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>Most other TA's will probably work as well, TA vendors try to
make sure their product can accept most of the standard modem AT
command set.</para>
<para>The real problem with external TA's is like modems you need a
good serial card in your computer. </para>
<para>You should read the <xref linkend="uart" remap="serial ports">
section in the handbook for a detailed understanding of serial
devices, and the differences between asynchronous and synchronous
serial ports.</para>
<para>A TA running off a standard PC serial port (asynchronous)
limits you to 115.2Kbs, even though you have a 128Kbs connection.
To fully utilize the 128Kbs that ISDN is capable of, you must move
the TA to a synchronous serial card. </para>
<para>Do not be fooled into buying an internal TA and thinking you
have avoided the synchronous/asynchronous issue. Internal TA's
simply have a standard PC serial port chip built into them. All
this will do, is save you having to buy another serial cable, and
find another empty electrical socket.</para>
<para>A synchronous card with a TA is at least as fast as a
standalone router, and with a simple 386 FreeBSD box driving it,
probably more flexible.</para>
<para>The choice of sync/TA vs standalone router is largely a
religious issue. There has been some discussion of this in the
mailing lists. I suggest you search the <ulink
URL="http://www.freebsd.org/search.html">archives</ulink> for
the complete discussion.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Standalone ISDN Bridges/Routers</title>
<para>ISDN bridges or routers are not at all specific to FreeBSD or
any other operating system. For a more complete description of
routing and bridging technology, please refer to a Networking
reference book.</para>
<para>In the context of this page, I will use router and bridge
interchangeably.</para>
<para>As the cost of low end ISDN routers/bridges comes down, it
will likely become a more and more popular choice. An ISDN router
is a small box that plugs directly into your local Ethernet
network(or card), and manages its own connection to the other
bridge/router. It has all the software to do PPP and other
protocols built in.</para>
<para>A router will allow you much faster throughput that a standard
TA, since it will be using a full synchronous ISDN
connection.</para>
<para>The main problem with ISDN routers and bridges is that
interoperability between manufacturers can still be a problem. If
you are planning to connect to an Internet provider, I recommend
that you discuss your needs with them.</para>
<para>If you are planning to connect two lan segments together, ie:
home lan to the office lan, this is the simplest lowest
maintenance solution. Since you are buying the equipment for both
sides of the connection you can be assured that the link will
work.</para>
<para>For example to connect a home computer or branch office
network to a head office network the following setup could be
used.</para>
<para><emphasis>Branch office or Home network</emphasis></para>
<para>Network is 10 Base T Ethernet. Connect router to network
cable with AUI/10BT transceiver, if necessary.</para>
<para>
<literallayout>---Sun workstation | ---FreeBSD box |
---Windows 95 (Do not admit to owning it) | Standalone router |
ISDN BRI line</literallayout> If your home/branch office is only
one computer you can use a twisted pair crossover cable to connect
to the standalone router directly.</para>
<para><emphasis>Head office or other lan</emphasis> </para>
<para>Network is Twisted Pair Ethernet. <literallayout>
-------Novell Server | H | | ---Sun | | | U
---FreeBSD | | | ---Windows 95 | B |
|___---Standalone router | ISDN BRI line</literallayout>
</para>
<para>One large advantage of most routers/bridges is that they allow
you to have 2 SEPARATE INDEPENDENT PPP connections to 2 separate
sites at the SAME time. This is not supported on most TA's,
except for specific(expensive) models that have two serial ports.
Do not confuse this with channel bonding, MPP etc.</para>
<para>This can be very useful feature, for example if you have an
dedicated internet ISDN connection at your office and would like
to tap into it, but don't want to get another ISDN line at work.
A router at the office location can manage a dedicated B channel
connection (64Kbs) to the internet, as well as a use the other B
channel for a separate data connection. The second B channel can
be used for dialin, dialout or dynamically bond(MPP etc.) with the
first B channel for more bandwidth.</para>
<para>An Ethernet bridge will also allow you to transmit more than
just IP traffic, you can also send IPX/SPX or whatever other
protocols you use.</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
</chapter>
<chapter
id="mail">
<title>Electronic Mail</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.wlloyd;.</emphasis></para>
<para> Electronic Mail configuration is the subject of many <xref
linkend="bibliography" remap="System Administration"> books. If you
plan on doing anything beyond setting up one mailhost for your
network, you need industrial strength help.</para>
<para>Some parts of E-Mail configuration are controlled in the Domain
Name System (DNS). If you are going to run your own own DNS server
check out <emphasis remap=bf> <command> /etc/namedb
</command></emphasis> and ' <emphasis remap=bf><command>man -k named
</command></emphasis> ' for more information.</para>
<sect1>
<title>Basic Information</title>
<para>These are the major programs involved in an E-Mail exchange. A
<emphasis remap=tt>mailhost</emphasis> is a server that is
responsible for delivering and receiving all email for your host,
and possibly your network.</para>
<sect2>
<title>User program</title>
<para> This is a program like <emphasis remap=tt>elm, pine,
mail</emphasis> , or something more sophisticated like a WWW
browser. This program will simply pass off all e-mail
transactions to the local <emphasis remap=tt>mailhost</emphasis> ,
either by calling <command>sendmail</command> or
delivering it over TCP.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Mailhost Server Daemon</title>
<para> Usually this program is <emphasis remap=tt>sendmail or
smail</emphasis> running in the background. Turn it off or
change the command line options in
<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> (or, prior to FreeBSD 2.2.2,
<filename>/etc/sysconfig</filename>). It is best to leave it on,
unless you have a specific reason to want it off. Example: You
are building a <xref
linkend="firewalls" remap="Firewall">.</para>
<para>You should be aware that <command>sendmail</command> is a potential weak link in a
secure site. Some versions of <command>sendmail</command> have known security
problems.</para>
<para> <emphasis remap=tt><command> sendmail
</command></emphasis> does two jobs. It looks after delivering
and receiving mail.</para>
<para>If <emphasis remap=bf><command>sendmail</command>
</emphasis> needs to deliver mail off your site it will look up in
the DNS to determine the actual host that will receive mail for
the destination.</para>
<para> If it is acting as a delivery agent <command>sendmail</command> will take the message from the
local queue and deliver it across the Internet to another sendmail
on the receivers computer. </para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>DNS - Name Service</title>
<para>The Domain Name System and its daemon <command>named</command> , contain the database mapping
hostname to IP address, and hostname to mailhost. The IP address
is specified in an <quote>A</quote> record. The <QUOTE>MX</QUOTE> record specifies the
mailhost that will receive mail for you. If you do not have a
<QUOTE>MX</QUOTE> record mail for your hostname, the mail will be delivered to
your host directly. </para>
<para>Unless you are running your own DNS server, you will not be
able to change any information in the DNS yourself. If you are
using an Internet Provider, speak to them.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>POP Servers</title>
<para> This program gets the mail from your mailbox and gives it to
your browser. If you want to run a POP server on your computer,
you will need to do 2 things.
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Get pop software from the <ulink
URL="../ports/mail.html">Ports collection</ulink> that
can be found in <filename>/usr/ports</filename> or packages
collection. This handbook section has a complete reference
on the <xref linkend="ports"
remap="Ports"> system.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Modify <emphasis
remap=bf><filename>/etc/inetd.conf</filename></emphasis>
to load the POP server.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>The pop program will have instructions with it. Read
them.</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Configuration</title>
<sect2>
<title>Basic</title>
<para>As your FreeBSD system comes <quote>out of the box</quote>[TM], you should
be able to send E-mail to external hosts as long as you have
<filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> setup or are running a name
server. If you want to have mail for your host delivered to your
specific host,there are two methods: </para>
<para>- Run a name server ( <emphasis remap=tt><command>man -k
named</command></emphasis> ) and have your own domain
<hostid role="domainname">smallminingco.com </hostid></para>
<para>- Get mail delivered to the current DNS name for your host.
Ie: <hostid role="fqdn">dorm6.ahouse.school.edu </hostid> </para>
<para>No matter what option you choose, to have mail delivered
directly to your host, you must be a full Internet host. You must
have a permanent IP address. IE: NO dynamic PPP. If you are
behind a firewall, the firewall must be passing on smtp traffic to
you. From <filename>/etc/services</filename> <literallayout>smtp
25/tcp mail #Simple Mail Transfer</literallayout> If you
want to receive mail at your host itself, you must make sure that
the DNS MX entry points to your host address, or there is no MX
entry for your DNS name.</para>
<para>Try this <literallayout>&prompt.root; hostname
newbsdbox.freebsd.org &prompt.root; host newbsdbox.freebsd.org
newbsdbox.freebsd.org has address 204.216.27.xx</literallayout>
</para>
<para>If that is all that comes out for your machine, mail directory
to <emphasis remap=tt><emphasis
remap=bf>root@newbsdbox.freebsd.org </emphasis></emphasis>
will work no problems.</para>
<para>If instead, you have this <literallayout>&prompt.root; host
newbsdbox.freebsd.org newbsdbox.FreeBSD.org has address
204.216.27.xx newbsdbox.FreeBSD.org mail is handled (pri=10) by
freefall.FreeBSD.org</literallayout> All mail sent to your host
directly will end up on freefall, under the same username.
</para>
<para>This information is setup in your domain name server. This
should be the same host that is listed as your primary nameserver
in <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename></para>
<para>The DNS record that carries mail routing information is the
Mail eXchange entry. If no MX entry exists, mail will be
delivered directly to the host by way of the Address
record.</para>
<para>The MX entry for freefall.freebsd.org at one time.
<literallayout> freefall MX 30
mail.crl.net freefall MX 40
agora.rdrop.com freefall HINFO Pentium
FreeBSD freefall MX 10
freefall.FreeBSD.org freefall MX 20
who.cdrom.com freefall A 204.216.27.xx
freefall CNAME
www.FreeBSD.org</literallayout>
</para>
<para>Freefall has many MX entries. The lowest MX number gets the
mail in the end. The others will queue mail temporarily, if
freefall is busy or down.</para>
<para>Alternate MX sites should have separate connections to the
Internet, to be most useful. An Internet Provider or other
friendly site can provide this service.</para>
<para><emphasis remap=bf><emphasis remap=tt>dig, nslookup,
</emphasis></emphasis>and<emphasis remap=bf><command>
host </command></emphasis>are your friends.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="mail-domain">
<title>Mail for your Domain (Network).</title>
<para>To setup up a network mailhost, you need to direct the mail
from arriving at all the workstations. In other words, you want to
hijack all mail for <hostid role="domainname"> *.smallminingco.com
</hostid> and divert it to one machine, your mailhost.</para>
<para>The network users on their workstations will most likely pick
up their mail over POP or telnet. </para>
<para>A user account with the SAME USERNAME should exist on both
machines. Please use <command>adduser</command> to do
this as required. If you set the <emphasis
remap=it>shell</emphasis> to <filename>/nonexistent</filename>
the user will not be allowed to login.</para>
<para>The mailhost that you will be using must be designated the
Mail eXchange for each workstation. This must be arranged in DNS
(ie BIND, named). Please refer to a Networking book for in-depth
information.</para>
<para>You basically need to add these lines in your DNS server.
<literallayout>pc24.smallminingco.com A
xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx ; Workstation ip MX 10
smtp.smallminingco.com ; Your mailhost</literallayout>
</para>
<para>You cannot do this yourself unless you are running a DNS
server. If you do not want to run a DNS server, get somebody else
like your Internet Provider to do it.</para>
<para>This will redirect mail for the workstation to the Mail
eXchange host. It does not matter what machine the A record
points to, the mail will be sent to the MX host.</para>
<para>This feature is used to implement Virtual E-Mail Hosting.
</para>
<para>Example</para>
<para>I have a customer with domain foo.bar and I want all mail for
foo.bar to be sent to my machine smtp.smalliap.com. You must make
an entry in your DNS server like: <literallayout> foo.bar
MX 10 smtp.smalliap.com ; your
mailhost</literallayout> The A record is not needed if you only
want E-Mail for the domain. IE: Don't expect <emphasis
remap=bf><command>ping foo.bar</command></emphasis>
to work unless an Address record for <filename>foo.bar</filename>
exists as well.</para>
<para>On the mailhost that actually accepts mail for final delivery
to a mailbox, sendmail must be told what hosts it will be
accepting mail for.</para>
<para>Add pc24.smallminingco.com to /etc/sendmail.cw (if you are
using FEATURE(use_cw_file)), or add a "Cw myhost.smalliap.com"
line to <emphasis
remap=bf><filename>/etc/sendmail.cf</filename></emphasis></para>
<para>If you plan on doing anything serious with <command>sendmail</command> you should install the sendmail
source. The source has plenty of documentation with it. You will
find information on getting <command>sendmail</command>
source from <xref linkend="sendmailuucp" remap="the UUCP
information">.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="sendmailuucp">
<title> Setting up UUCP.</title>
<para><emphasis>Stolen from the FAQ.</emphasis></para>
<para>The sendmail configuration that ships with FreeBSD is suited
for sites that connect directly to the Internet. Sites that wish
to exchange their mail via UUCP must install another sendmail
configuration file.</para>
<para>Tweaking <filename>/etc/sendmail.cf</filename> manually is
considered something for purists. Sendmail version 8 comes with a
new approach of generating config files via some <command>m4</command> preprocessing, where the actual
hand-crafted configuration is on a higher abstraction level. You
should use the configuration files under</para>
<para>
<literallayout> /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail/cf</literallayout>
</para>
<para>If you did not install your system with full sources, the
sendmail config stuff has been broken out into a separate source
distribution tarball just for you. Assuming you have your CD-ROM
mounted, do:</para>
<para>
<literallayout> cd /usr/src tar -xvzf
/cdrom/dists/src/ssmailcf.aa</literallayout>
</para>
<para>Do not panic, this is only a few hundred kilobytes in size.
The file <filename>README</filename> in the <filename>cf</filename> directory can serve as a basic
introduction to m4 configuration.</para>
<para>For UUCP delivery, you are best advised to use the
<emphasis>mailertable</emphasis> feature. This constitutes a
database that sendmail can use to base its routing decision
upon.</para>
<para>First, you have to create your <filename>.mc</filename> file.
The directory
<filename>/usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail/cf/cf</filename> is the home
of these files. Look around, there are already a few examples.
Assuming you have named your file <filename>foo.mc</filename>, all
you need to do in order to convert it into a valid
<filename>sendmail.cf</filename> is:</para>
<para>
<literallayout> cd /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail/cf/cf make
foo.cf</literallayout>
</para>
<para>If you don't have a <filename>/usr/obj</filename> hiearchy,
then:</para>
<para>
<literallayout> cp foo.cf /etc/sendmail.cf</literallayout>
</para>
<para>Otherwise:</para>
<para>
<literallayout> cp /usr/obj/`pwd`/foo.cf
/etc/sendmail.cf</literallayout>
</para>
<para>A typical <filename>.mc</filename> file might look
like:</para>
<para>
<literallayout> include(`../m4/cf.m4') VERSIONID(`Your version
number') OSTYPE(bsd4.4) FEATURE(nodns) FEATURE(nocanonify)
FEATURE(mailertable) define(`UUCP_RELAY', your.uucp.relay)
define(`UUCP_MAX_SIZE', 200000) MAILER(local) MAILER(smtp)
MAILER(uucp) Cw your.alias.host.name Cw
youruucpnodename.UUCP</literallayout>
</para>
<para>The <emphasis>nodns</emphasis> and
<emphasis>nocanonify</emphasis> features will prevent any usage of
the DNS during mail delivery. The <symbol>UUCP_RELAY</symbol>
clause is needed for bizarre reasons, do not ask. Simply put an
Internet hostname there that is able to handle .UUCP pseudo-domain
addresses; most likely, you will enter the mail relay of your ISP
there.</para>
<para>Once you have this, you need this file called
<filename>/etc/mailertable</filename>. A typical example of this
gender again:</para>
<para>
<literallayout> # # makemap hash /etc/mailertable.db &lt;
/etc/mailertable # horus.interface-business.de uucp-dom:horus
.interface-business.de uucp-dom:if-bus
interface-business.de uucp-dom:if-bus .heep.sax.de
smtp8:%1 horus.UUCP uucp-dom:horus
if-bus.UUCP uucp-dom:if-bus .
uucp-dom:sax</literallayout>
</para>
<para>As you can see, this is part of a real-life file. The first
three lines handle special cases where domain-addressed mail
should not be sent out to the default route, but instead to some
UUCP neighbor in order to <quote>shortcut</quote> the delivery path. The
next line handles mail to the local Ethernet domain that can be
delivered using SMTP. Finally, the UUCP neighbors are mentioned
in the .UUCP pseudo-domain notation, to allow for a
<literal>uucp-neighbor!recipient</literal> override of the default rules. The
last line is always a single dot, matching everything else, with
UUCP delivery to a UUCP neighbor that serves as your universal
mail gateway to the world. All of the node names behind the
<emphasis remap=tt>uucp-dom:</emphasis> keyword must be valid UUCP
neighbors, as you can verify using the command <emphasis
remap=tt>uuname</emphasis>.</para>
<para>As a reminder that this file needs to be converted into a DBM
database file before being usable, the command line to accomplish
this is best placed as a comment at the top of the mailertable.
You always have to execute this command each time you change your
mailertable.</para>
<para>Final hint: if you are uncertain whether some particular mail
routing would work, remember the <option>-bt</option> option to
sendmail. It starts sendmail in <emphasis>address test
mode</emphasis>; simply enter <token>0</token>, followed by the address
you wish to test for the mail routing. The last line tells you
the used internal mail agent, the destination host this agent will
be called with, and the (possibly translated) address. Leave this
mode by typing Control-D.</para>
<para>
<literallayout>&prompt.user; sendmail -bt ADDRESS TEST MODE
(ruleset 3 NOT automatically invoked) Enter &lt;ruleset&gt;
&lt;address&gt; &gt; 0 foo@interface-business.de rewrite:
ruleset 0 input: foo @ interface-business . de ... rewrite:
ruleset 0 returns: $# uucp-dom $@ if-bus $: foo \ &lt; @
interface-business . de &gt; &gt; ^D &prompt.user;
</literallayout>
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="mailfaq">
<title>FAQ</title>
<para><emphasis>Migration from FAQ.</emphasis></para>
<sect2>
<title>Why do I have to use the FQDN for hosts on my site?</title>
<para>You will probably find that the host is actually in a
different domain; for example, if you are in <hostid role="fqdn">foo.bar.edu</hostid> and you
wish to reach a host called <hostid>mumble</hostid> in the <hostid
role="domainname">bar.edu</hostid> domain, you
will have to refer to it by the fully-qualified domain name,
<hostid role="fqdn">mumble.bar.edu</hostid>, instead of just <hostid>mumble</hostid>. </para>
<para>Traditionally, this was allowed by BSD BIND resolvers. However
the current version of <application>BIND</application> that ships with
FreeBSD no longer provides default abbreviations for non-fully
qualified domain names other than the domain you are in. So an
unqualified host <hostid>mumble</hostid> must either
be found as <hostid role="fqdn">mumble.foo.bar.edu</hostid>, or
it will be searched for in the root domain.</para>
<para>This is different from the previous behavior, where the search
continued across <hostid role="domainname">mumble.bar.edu</hostid>,
and <hostid role="domainname">mumble.edu</hostid>. Have a look at
RFC 1535 for why this was considered bad practice, or even a
security hole.</para>
<para>As a good workaround, you can place the line</para>
<para><literal>search foo.bar.edu
bar.edu</literal></para>
<para>instead of the previous</para>
<para><literal>domain foo.bar.edu</literal></para>
<para>into your <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename>. However,
make sure that the search order does not go beyond the <quote>boundary
between local and public administration</quote>, as RFC 1535 calls
it.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Sendmail says <errorname>mail loops back to myself</errorname></title>
<para>This is answered in the sendmail FAQ as follows:-
<literallayout> * I am getting "Local configuration
error" messages, such as: 553 relay.domain.net config error:
mail loops back to myself 554 &lt;user@domain.net&gt;... Local
configuration error How can I solve this problem? You have asked
mail to the domain (e.g., domain.net) to be forwarded to a
specific host (in this case, relay.domain.net) by using an MX
record, but the relay machine does not recognize itself as
domain.net. Add domain.net to /etc/sendmail.cw (if you are
using FEATURE(use_cw_file)) or add "Cw domain.net" to
/etc/sendmail.cf. </literallayout>
</para>
<para>The sendmail FAQ is in
<filename>/usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail</filename> and is recommended
reading if you want to do any <quote>tweaking</quote> of your mail
setup.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>How can I do E-Mail with a dialup PPP host?</title>
<para>You want to connect a FreeBSD box on a lan, to the Internet.
The FreeBSD box will be a mail gateway for the lan. The PPP
connection is non-dedicated.</para>
<para>There are at least two way to do this.</para>
<para>The other is to use UUCP.</para>
<para>The key is to get a Internet site to provide secondary MX
services for your domain. For example: <literallayout>bigco.com.
MX 10 bigco.com. MX 20
smalliap.com.</literallayout>
</para>
<para>Only one host should be specified as the final recipient ( add
<literal>Cw bigco.com</literal> in <filename>/etc/sendmail.cf</filename> on
bigco.com).</para>
<para>When the senders sendmail is trying to deliver the mail it
will try to connect to you over the modem link. It will most
likely time out because you are not online. Sendmail will
automatically deliver it to the secondary MX site, ie your
Internet provider. The secondary MX site will try every
(<literal>sendmail_flags = "-bd -q15m"</literal> in
<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> ) 15 minutes to connect to your
host to deliver the mail to the primary MX site. </para>
<para>You might wat to use something like this as a login script.
<literallayout>#!/bin/sh # Put me in /usr/local/bin/pppbigco (
sleep 60 ; /usr/sbin/sendmail -q ) &amp; /usr/sbin/ppp -direct
pppbigco</literallayout> If you are going to create a separate
login script for a user you could use <command>sendmail
-qRbigco.com</command> instead in the script above. This will
force all mail in your queue for bigco.com to be processed
immediately.</para>
<para>A further refinement of the situation is as follows.</para>
<para>Message stolen from the freebsd-isp mailing list.
<literallayout>&gt; we provide the secondary mx for a customer.
The customer connects to &gt; our services several times a day
automatically to get the mails to &gt; his primary mx (We do
not call his site when a mail for his domains &gt; arrived).
Our sendmail sends the mailqueue every 30 minutes. At the &gt;
moment he has to stay 30 minutes online to be sure that all mail
is &gt; gone to the primary mx. &gt; &gt; Is there a command
that would initiate sendmail to send all the mails &gt; now?
The user has not root-privileges on our machine of course. In
the 'privacy flags' section of sendmail.cf, there is a
definition Opgoaway,restrictqrun Remove restrictqrun to allow
non-root users to start the queue processing. You might also
like to rearrange the MXs. We are the 1st MX for our customers
like this, and we have defined: # If we are the best MX for a
host, try directly instead of generating # local config error.
OwTrue That way a remote site will deliver straight to you,
without trying the customer connection. You then send to your
customer. Only works for "hosts", so you need to get your
customer to name their mail machine "customer.com" as well as
"hostname.customer.com" in the DNS. Just put an A record in
the DNS for "customer.com".</literallayout>
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
</chapter>
</part>
<part>
<title>Advanced topics</title>
<chapter>
<title>The Cutting Edge: FreeBSD-current and FreeBSD-stable</title>
<para>FreeBSD is under constant development between releases. For
people who want to be on the cutting edge, there are several easy
mechanisms for keeping your system in sync with the latest
developments. Be warned: the cutting edge is not for everyone! This
chapter will help you decide if you want to track the development
system, or stick with one of the released versions.</para>
<sect1
id="current">
<title>Staying Current with FreeBSD</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.jkh;.</emphasis></para>
<sect2>
<title>What is FreeBSD-current?</title>
<para>FreeBSD-current is, quite literally, nothing more than a daily
snapshot of the working sources for FreeBSD. These include work
in progress, experimental changes and transitional mechanisms that
may or may not be present in the next official release of the
software. While many of us compile almost daily from
FreeBSD-current sources, there are periods of time when the
sources are literally un-compilable. These problems are generally
resolved as expeditiously as possible, but whether or not
FreeBSD-current sources bring disaster or greatly desired
functionality can literally be a matter of which part of any given
24 hour period you grabbed them in!</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Who needs FreeBSD-current?</title>
<para>FreeBSD-current is made generally available for 3 primary
interest groups:
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para> Members of the FreeBSD group who are actively working
on some part of the source tree and for whom keeping
`current' is an absolute requirement.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Members of the FreeBSD group who are active testers,
willing to spend time working through problems in order to
ensure that FreeBSD-current remains as sane as possible.
These are also people who wish to make topical suggestions
on changes and the general direction of FreeBSD.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Peripheral members of the FreeBSD (or some other)
group who merely wish to keep an eye on things and use the
current sources for reference purposes (e.g. for
<emphasis>reading</emphasis>, not running). These people
also make the occasional comment or contribute code.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>What is FreeBSD-current <emphasis>NOT</emphasis>?</title>
<para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para> A fast-track to getting pre-release bits because you
heard there is some cool new feature in there and you want
to be the first on your block to have it.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> A quick way of getting bug fixes.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> In any way <quote>officially supported</quote> by us. We do our
best to help people genuinely in one of the 3 <quote>legitimate</quote>
FreeBSD-current categories, but we simply <emphasis>do not
have the time</emphasis> to provide tech support for it.
This is not because we are mean and nasty people who do not
like helping people out (we would not even be doing FreeBSD
if we were), it is literally because we cannot answer 400
messages a day <emphasis>and</emphasis> actually work on
FreeBSD! I am sure that, if given the choice between having
us answer lots of questions or continuing to improve
FreeBSD, most of you would vote for us improving it.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Using FreeBSD-current</title>
<para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para> Join the &a.current; and the &a.cvsall; . This is not
just a good idea, it is <emphasis>essential</emphasis>. If
you are not on the <emphasis>FreeBSD-current</emphasis>
mailing list you will not see the comments that people are
making about the current state of the system and thus will
probably end up stumbling over a lot of problems that others
have already found and solved. Even more importantly, you
will miss out on potentially critical information (e.g.
<quote>Yo, Everybody! Before you rebuild
<filename>/usr/src</filename>, you <emphasis>must</emphasis>
rebuild the kernel or your system will crash horribly!</quote>).
The <emphasis>cvs-all</emphasis> mailing list will allow you
to see the commit log entry for each change as it is made
along with any pertinent information on possible
side-effects. To join these lists, send mail to
&a.majordomo; and specify: <literallayout>subscribe
freebsd-current subscribe cvs-all</literallayout> In the
body of your message. Optionally, you can also say `help'
and Majordomo will send you full help on how to subscribe
and unsubscribe to the various other mailing lists we
support.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Grab the sources from ftp.FreeBSD.ORG. You can do
this in three ways:
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para> Use the <xref linkend="ctm" remap="CTM">
facility. Unless you have a good TCP/IP connection
at a flat rate, this is the way to do it.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Use the <xref linkend="cvsup" remap="cvsup">
program with <ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-current/src/share/examples/cvsup/standard-supfile">this supfile</ulink>. This is the second most recommended method, since it allows you to grab the entire collection once and then only what has changed from then on. Many people run cvsup from cron and keep their sources up-to-date automatically.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Use ftp. The source tree for FreeBSD-current is
always <quote>exported</quote> on: <ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-current">ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-current</ulink> We also use `wu-ftpd' which allows compressed/tar'd grabbing of whole trees. e.g. you see: <literallayout> usr.bin/lex</literallayout> You can do: <literallayout> ftp&gt; cd usr.bin ftp&gt; get lex.tar.Z</literallayout> And it will get the whole directory for you as a compressed tar file.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Essentially, if you need rapid on-demand access to the
source and communications bandwidth is not a consideration,
use cvsup or ftp. Otherwise, use CTM.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> If you are grabbing the sources to run, and not just
look at, then grab <emphasis>all</emphasis> of current, not
just selected portions. The reason for this is that various
parts of the source depend on updates elsewhere, and trying
to compile just a subset is almost guaranteed to get you
into trouble.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Before compiling current, read the Makefile in
<filename>/usr/src</filename> carefully. You should at
least run a <xref
linkend="makeworld" remap="make world"> the first time
through as part of the upgrading process. Reading the
&a.current; will keep you up-to-date on other bootstrapping
procedures that sometimes become necessary as we move
towards the next release.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Be active! If you are running FreeBSD-current, we
want to know what you have to say about it, especially if
you have suggestions for enhancements or bug fixes.
Suggestions with accompanying code are received most
enthusiastically! </para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="stable">
<title>Staying Stable with FreeBSD</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.jkh;.</emphasis></para>
<sect2>
<title>What is FreeBSD-stable?</title>
<para>FreeBSD-stable is our development branch for a more low-key
and conservative set of changes intended for our next mainstream
release. Changes of an experimental or untested nature do not go
into this branch (see <xref linkend="current"
remap="FreeBSD-current">).</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Who needs FreeBSD-stable?</title>
<para>If you are a commercial user or someone who puts maximum
stability of their FreeBSD system before all other concerns, you
should consider tracking <emphasis>stable</emphasis>. This is
especially true if you have installed the most recent release
(<ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/&rel.current;-RELEASE">&rel.current;-RELEASE</ulink> at the time of this writing) since the <emphasis>stable</emphasis> branch is effectively a bug-fix stream relative to the previous release.</para>
<warning>
<para>The <emphasis>stable</emphasis> tree endeavors, above all,
to be fully compilable and stable at all times, but we do
occasionally make mistakes (these are still active sources with
quickly-transmitted updates, after all). We also do our best to
thoroughly test fixes in <emphasis>current</emphasis> before
bringing them into <emphasis>stable</emphasis>, but sometimes
our tests fail to catch every case. If something breaks for you
in <emphasis>stable</emphasis>, please let us know
<emphasis>immediately!</emphasis> (see next section).</para>
</warning>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Using FreeBSD-stable</title>
<para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para> Join the &a.stable; . This will keep you informed of
build-dependencies that may appear in
<emphasis>stable</emphasis> or any other issues requiring
special attention. Developers will also make announcements
in this mailing list when they are contemplating some
controversial fix or update, giving the users a chance to
respond if they have any issues to raise concerning the
proposed change. To join this list, send mail to
&a.majordomo; and say: <literallayout> subscribe
freebsd-stable</literallayout> In the body of your
message. Optionally, you can also say `help' and Majordomo
will send you full help on how to subscribe and unsubscribe
to the various other mailing lists we support.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Grab the sources from ftp.FreeBSD.ORG. You can do
this in three ways:
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para> Use the <xref linkend="ctm" remap="CTM">
facility. Unless you have a good TCP/IP connection
at a flat rate, this is the way to do it.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Use the <xref linkend="cvsup" remap="cvsup">
program with <ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-current/src/share/examples/cvsup/stable-supfile">this supfile</ulink>. This is the second most recommended method, since it allows you to grab the entire collection once and then only what has changed from then on. Many people run cvsup from cron to keep their sources up-to-date automatically.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Use ftp. The source tree for FreeBSD-stable is
always <quote>exported</quote> on: <ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-stable">ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-stable</ulink>
</para>
<para>We also use `wu-ftpd' which allows
compressed/tar'd grabbing of whole trees. e.g. you
see: <literallayout>
usr.bin/lex</literallayout> You can do:
<literallayout> ftp&gt; cd usr.bin ftp&gt;
get lex.tar.Z</literallayout> And it will get the
whole directory for you as a compressed tar
file.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Essentially, if you need rapid on-demand access to the
source and communications bandwidth is not a consideration,
use cvsup or ftp. Otherwise, use CTM.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Before compiling stable, read the Makefile in
<filename>/usr/src</filename> carefully. You should at
least run a <xref
linkend="makeworld" remap="make world"> the first time
through as part of the upgrading process. Reading the
&a.stable; will keep you up-to-date on other bootstrapping
procedures that sometimes become necessary as we move
towards the next release.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="synching">
<title>Synchronizing Source Trees over the Internet</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.jkh;.</emphasis></para>
<para>There are various ways of using an Internet (or email)
connection to stay up-to-date with any given area of the FreeBSD
project sources, or all areas, depending on what interests you. The
primary services we offer are CVSup and CTM.</para>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>CVSup</emphasis> uses the
<emphasis>pull</emphasis> model of updating. The user (or a cron
script) invokes the <command>cvsup</command> program, and
it interacts with a <command>cvsupd</command> server
somewhere to bring your files up to date. The updates you receive
are up-to-the-minute and you get them when, and only when, you want
them. You can easily restrict your updates to the specific files or
directories that are of interest to you. Updates are generated on
the fly by the server, according to what you have and what you want
to have.</para>
<para><application>CTM</application>, on the other hand, does not
interactively compare the sources you have with those on the master
archive. Instead, a script which identifies changes in files since
its previous run is executed several times a day on the master
archive, any detected changes being compressed, stamped with a
sequence-number and encoded for transmission over email (printable
ASCII only). Once received, these "CTM deltas" can then be handed
to the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ctm_rmail</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> utility which will automatically decode, verify
and apply the changes to the user's copy of the sources. This
process is far more efficient than CVSup, and places less strain on
our server resources since it is a <emphasis>push</emphasis> rather
than a <emphasis>pull</emphasis> model.</para>
<para>There are other trade-offs, of course. If you inadvertently
wipe out portions of your archive, CVSup will detect and rebuild the
damaged portions for you. CTM won't do this, and if you wipe some
portion of your source tree out (and don't have it backed up) then
you will have to start from scratch (from the most recent CVS "base
delta") and rebuild it all.</para>
<para>For more information on CTM and CVSup, please see one of the
following sections:</para>
<sect2
id="ctm">
<title>CTM</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.phk;. Updated
19-October-1997.</emphasis></para>
<para><application>CTM</application> is a method for keeping a remote
directory tree in sync with a central one. It has been developed
for usage with FreeBSD's source trees, though other people may
find it useful for other purposes as time goes by. Little, if
any, documentation currently exists at this time on the process of
creating deltas, so talk to &a.phk; for more information should
you wish to use <application>CTM</application> for other things.</para>
<sect3>
<title>Why should I use <application>CTM</application>?</title>
<para><application>CTM</application> will give you a local copy of the
FreeBSD source trees. There are a number of <quote>flavors</quote> of the
tree available. Whether you wish to track the entire cvs tree or
just one of the branches, <application>CTM</application> can provide you
the information. If you are an active developer on FreeBSD, but
have lousy or non-existent TCP/IP connectivity, or simply wish
to have the changes automatically sent to you,
<application>CTM</application> was made for you. You will need to obtain
up to three deltas per day for the most active branches.
However, you should consider having them sent by automatic
email. The sizes of the updates are always kept as small as
possible. This is typically less than 5K, with an occasional
(one in ten) being 10-50K and every now and then a biggie of
100K+ or more coming around.</para>
<para>You will also need to make yourself aware of the various
caveats related to working directly from the development
sources rather than a pre-packaged release. This is particularly
true if you choose the <quote>current</quote> sources. It is recommended
that you read <xref linkend="current" remap="Staying current
with
FreeBSD">.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>What do I need to use <application>CTM</application>?</title>
<para>You will need two things: The <application>CTM</application>
program and the initial deltas to feed it (to get up to
<quote>current</quote> levels).</para>
<para>The <application>CTM</application> program has been part of FreeBSD
ever since version 2.0 was released, and lives in
<filename>/usr/src/usr.sbin/CTM</filename> if
you have a copy of the source online.</para>
<para>If you are running a pre-2.0 version of FreeBSD, you can
fetch the current <application>CTM</application> sources directly
from:</para>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-current/src/usr.sbin/ctm">ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-current/src/usr.sbin/ctm</ulink></para>
<para>The <quote>deltas</quote> you feed <application>CTM</application> can be had
two ways, FTP or e-mail. If you have general FTP access to the
Internet then the following FTP sites support access to
<application>CTM</application>:</para>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD/CTM">ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD/CTM</ulink></para>
<para>or see section <xref linkend="mirrors-ctm"
remap="mirrors">.</para>
<para>FTP the relevant directory and fetch the
<filename>README</filename> file, starting from there.</para>
<para>If you may wish to get your deltas via email:</para>
<para>Send email to &a.majordomo; to subscribe to one of the
<application>CTM</application> distribution lists. <quote>ctm-cvs-cur</quote>
supports the entire cvs tree. <quote>ctm-src-cur</quote> supports the head
of the development branch. <quote>ctm-src-2_2</quote> supports the 2.2
release branch, etc. (If you do not know how to subscribe
yourself using majordomo, send a message first containing the
word <literal>help</literal> - it will send you back usage
instructions.)</para>
<para>When you begin receiving your <application>CTM</application> updates
in the mail, you may use the <symbol>ctm_rmail</symbol> program
to unpack and apply them. You can actually use the
<symbol>ctm_rmail</symbol> program directly from a entry in
<filename>/etc/aliases</filename> if you want to have the
process run in a fully automated fashion. Check the
<symbol>ctm_rmail</symbol> man page for more details.</para>
<note>
<para>No matter what method you use to get the
<application>CTM</application> deltas, you should subscribe to the
<email>ctm-announce@FreeBSD.ORG</email> mailing list. In the
future, this will be the only place where announcements
concerning the operations of the <application>CTM</application> system
will be posted. Send an email to &a.majordomo; with a single
line of <literal>subscribe
ctm-announce</literal> to get added to the list.</para>
</note>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Starting off with <application>CTM</application> for the first
time</title>
<para>Before you can start using <application>CTM</application> deltas,
you will need to get a to a starting point for the deltas
produced subsequently to it.</para>
<para>First you should determine what you already have. Everyone
can start from an <quote>Empty</quote> directory. However, since the trees
are many tens of megabytes, you should prefer to start from
something already at hand. If you have a RELEASE CD, you can
copy or extract an initial source from it. This will save a
significant transfer of data.</para>
<para>Once you identify a suitable starting point, you must use an
initial <quote>transition</quote> delta to transform your starting point
into a <application>CTM</application> supported tree.</para>
<para>You can recognize these transition deltas by the
<filename>X</filename> appended to the number
(<filename>src-cur.3210XEmpty.gz</filename> for instance). The
designation following the <filename>X</filename>
corresponds to the origin of your initial <quote>seed</quote>. <filename>Empty</filename> is
an empty directory, <filename>R225</filename> would designate the 2.2.5 release,
etc. As a rule a base transition from <filename>Empty</filename> is producted
every 100 deltas. By the way, they are large! 25 to 30
Megabytes of <command>gzip</command>'ed data is
common for the <filename>XEmpty</filename> deltas.</para>
<para>Once you've picked a base delta to start from, you will also
need all deltas with higher numbers following it.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Using <application>CTM</application> in your daily life</title>
<para>To apply the deltas, simply say:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; cd /where/ever/you/want/the/stuff
&prompt.root; ctm -v -v
/where/you/store/your/deltas/src-xxx.*
</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para><application>CTM</application> understands deltas which have been
put through <command>gzip</command>, so you do not
need to gunzip them first, this saves disk space.</para>
<para>Unless it feels very secure about the entire process,
<application>CTM</application> will not touch your tree. To verify a
delta you can also use the <option>-c</option> flag and
<application>CTM</application> will not actually touch your tree; it
will merely verify the integrity of the delta and see if it
would apply cleanly to your current tree.</para>
<para>There are other options to <application>CTM</application> as well,
see the manual pages or look in the sources for more
information.</para>
<para>I would also be very happy if somebody could help with the
<quote>user interface</quote> portions, as I have realized that I cannot
make up my mind on what options should do what, how and
when...</para>
<para>That's really all there is to it. Every time you get a new
delta, just run it through <application>CTM</application> to keep your
sources up to date.</para>
<para>Do not remove the deltas if they are hard to download again.
You just might want to keep them around in case something bad
happens. Even if you only have floppy disks, consider using
<command>fdwrite</command> to make a copy.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Keeping your local changes</title>
<para>As a developer one would like to experiment with and change
files in the source tree. CTM supports local modifications in a
limited way: before checking for the presence of a file
<filename>foo</filename>, it first looks for
<filename>foo.ctm</filename>. If this file exists, CTM will
operate on it instead of <filename>foo</filename>.</para>
<para>This behaviour gives us a simple way to maintain local
changes: simply copy the files you plan to modify to the
corresponding file names with a <filename>.ctm</filename>
suffix. Then you can freely hack the code, while CTM keeps the
<filename>.ctm</filename> file up-to-date.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Other interesting CTM options</title>
<sect4>
<title>Finding out exactly what would be touched by an
update</title>
<para>You can determine the list of changes that CTM will make
on your source repository using the <option>-l</option>
option to CTM.</para>
<para>This is useful if you would like to keep logs of the
changes, pre- or post- process the modified files in any
manner, or just are feeling a tad paranoid :-).</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Making backups before updating</title>
<para>Sometimes you may want to backup all the files that would
be changed by a CTM update.</para>
<para>Specifying the <option>-B backup-file</option> option
causes CTM to backup all files that would be touched by a
given CTM delta to <filename>backup-file</filename>.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Restricting the files touched by an update</title>
<para>Sometimes you would be interested in restricting the scope
of a given CTM update, or may be interested in extracting just
a few files from a sequence of deltas.</para>
<para>You can control the list of files that CTM would operate
on by specifying filtering regular expressions using the
<option>-e</option> and <option>-x</option>
options.</para>
<para>For example, to extract an up-to-date copy of
<filename>lib/libc/Makefile</filename> from your collection of
saved CTM deltas, run the commands:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; cd /where/ever/you/want/to/extract/it/
&prompt.root; ctm -e
'^lib/libc/Makefile' ~ctm/src-xxx.*
</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>For every file specified in a CTM delta, the
<option>-e</option> and <option>-x</option> options
are applied in the order given on the command line. The file
is processed by CTM only if it is marked as eligible after all
the <option>-e</option> and <option>-x</option>
options are applied to it.</para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Future plans for <application>CTM</application></title>
<para>Tons of them:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Use some kind of authentication into the CTM system,
so as to allow detection of spoofed CTM updates.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Clean up the options to <application>CTM</application>, they
became confusing and counter intuitive.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>The bad news is that I am very busy, so any help in doing
this will be most welcome. And do not forget to tell me what
you want also...</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Miscellaneous stuff</title>
<para>All the <quote>DES infected</quote> (e.g. export controlled) source is
not included. You will get the <quote>international</quote> version only.
If sufficient interest appears, we will set up a <emphasis
remap=tt>sec-cur</emphasis> sequence too. There is a
sequence of deltas for the <emphasis remap=tt>ports</emphasis>
collection too, but interest has not been all that high yet.
Tell me if you want an email list for that too and we will
consider setting it up.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Thanks!</title>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>&a.bde;</term>
<listitem>
<para>for his pointed pen and invaluable comments.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>&a.sos;</term>
<listitem>
<para>for patience.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Stephen McKay</term>
<listitem>
<para>wrote <emphasis remap=tt>ctm_[rs]mail</emphasis>,
much appreciated.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>&a.jkh;</term>
<listitem>
<para>for being so stubborn that I had to make it
better.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>All the users</term>
<listitem>
<para>I hope you like it...</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="cvsup">
<title>CVSup</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.jdp;</emphasis>.</para>
<sect3
id="cvsup-intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<para>CVSup is a software package for distributing and updating
source trees from a master CVS repository on a remote server
host. The FreeBSD sources are maintained in a CVS repository on
a central development machine in California. With CVSup,
FreeBSD users can easily keep their own source trees up to
date.</para>
<para>CVSup uses the so-called <emphasis>pull</emphasis> model of
updating. Under the pull model, each client asks the server for
updates, if and when they are wanted. The server waits
passively for update requests from its clients. Thus all
updates are instigated by the client. The server never sends
unsolicited updates. Users must either run the CVSup client
manually to get an update, or they must set up a cron job to run
it automatically on a regular basis.</para>
<para>The term <application>CVSup</application>, capitalized just so, refers to the entire
software package. Its main components are the client <command>cvsup</command>
which runs on each user's machine, and the server <command>cvsupd</command> which
runs at each of the FreeBSD mirror sites.</para>
<para>As you read the FreeBSD documentation and mailing lists, you
may see references to <emphasis>sup</emphasis>. Sup was the
predecessor of CVSup, and it served a similar purpose. CVSup is
in used in much the same way as sup and, in fact, uses
configuration files which are backward-compatible with sup's.
Sup is no longer used in the FreeBSD project, because CVSup is
both faster and more flexible.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="cvsup-install">
<title>Installation</title>
<para>The easiest way to install CVSup if you are running FreeBSD
2.2 or later is to use either <ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports-current/net/cvsup.tar">the port</ulink> from the FreeBSD <xref linkend="ports" remap="ports collection"> or the corresponding <ulink URL="ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/packages-current/net/cvsup-15.3.tgz">binary package</ulink>, depending on whether you prefer to roll your own or not.</para>
<para>If you are running FreeBSD-2.1.6 or 2.1.7, you unfortunately
cannot use the binary package versions due to the fact that it
requires a version of the C library that does not yet exist in
FreeBSD-2.1.{6,7}. You can easily use <ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports-current/net/cvsup.tar">the port</ulink>, however, just as with FreeBSD 2.2. Simply unpack the tar file, cd to the cvsup subdirectory and type <command>make install</command>.</para>
<para>Because CVSup is written in <ulink
URL="http://www.research.digital.com/SRC/modula-3/html/home.html">Modula-3</ulink>, both the package and the port require that the Modula-3 runtime libraries be installed. These are available as the <ulink URL="ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports-current/lang/modula-3-lib.tar">lang/modula-3-lib</ulink> port and the <ulink URL="ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/packages-current/lang/modula-3-lib-3.6.tgz">lang/modula-3-lib-3.6</ulink> package. If you follow the same directions as for cvsup, these libraries will be compiled and/or installed automatically when you install the CVSup port or package.</para>
<para>The Modula-3 libraries are rather large, and fetching and
compiling them is not an instantaneous process. For that
reason, a third option is provided. You can get
<emphasis>statically linked</emphasis> FreeBSD executables for
CVSup from either the USA distribution site:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/CVSup/cvsup-bin-15.3.tar.gz">ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/CVSup/cvsup-bin-15.3.tar.gz</ulink> (client including GUI).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/CVSup/cvsup.nogui-bin-15.3.tar.gz">ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/CVSup/cvsup.nogui-bin-15.3.tar.gz</ulink> (client without GUI).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/CVSup/cvsupd-bin-15.3.tar.gz">ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/CVSup/cvsupd-bin-15.3.tar.gz</ulink> (server).</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>or the German mirror:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.cs.tu-berlin.de/pub/FreeBSD/CVSup/cvsup-bin-15.3.tar.gz">ftp://ftp.cs.tu-berlin.de/pub/FreeBSD/CVSup/cvsup-bin-15.3.tar.gz</ulink> (client including GUI).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.cs.tu-berlin.de/pub/FreeBSD/CVSup/cvsup.nogui-bin-15.3.tar.gz">ftp://ftp.cs.tu-berlin.de/pub/FreeBSD/CVSup/cvsup.nogui-bin-15.3.tar.gz</ulink> (client without GUI).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.cs.tu-berlin.de/pub/FreeBSD/CVSup/cvsupd-bin-15.3.tar.gz">ftp://ftp.cs.tu-berlin.de/pub/FreeBSD/CVSup/cvsupd-bin-15.3.tar.gz</ulink> (server).</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>Most users will need only the client. These executables are
entirely self-contained, and they will run on any version of
FreeBSD from FreeBSD-2.1.0 to FreeBSD-current.</para>
<para>In summary, your options for installing CVSup are:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>FreeBSD-2.2 or later: static binary, port,
or package</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>FreeBSD-2.1.6, 2.1.7: static binary or
port</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>FreeBSD-2.1.5 or earlier: static binary</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="cvsup-config">
<title>Configuration</title>
<para>CVSup's operation is controlled by a configuration file
called the <filename>supfile</filename>. Beginning with
FreeBSD-2.2, there are some sample <filename>supfiles</filename>
in the directory <ulink
URL="file:/usr/share/examples/cvsup">/usr/share/examples/cvsup</ulink>. These examples are also available from <ulink URL="ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-current/src/share/examples/cvsup/">ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-current/src/share/examples/cvsup/</ulink> if you are on a pre-2.2 system.</para>
<para>The information in a <filename>supfile</filename> answers
the following questions for cvsup:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><xref linkend="cvsup-config-files" remap="Which files
do you want to receive?"></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><xref linkend="cvsup-config-vers" remap="Which
versions of them do you want?"></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><xref linkend="cvsup-config-where" remap="Where do you
want to get them from?"></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><xref linkend="cvsup-config-dest" remap="Where do you
want to put them on your own machine?"></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><xref linkend="cvsup-config-status" remap="Where do
you want to put your status files?"></para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>In the following sections, we will construct a typical
<filename>supfile</filename> by answering each of these
questions in turn. First, we describe the overall structure of
a <filename>supfile</filename>.</para>
<para>A <filename>supfile</filename> is a text file. Comments
begin with <literal>#</literal> and extend to the end of the line. Lines that
are blank and lines that contain only comments are
ignored.</para>
<para>Each remaining line describes a set of files that the user
wishes to receive. The line begins with the name of a
"collection", a logical grouping of files defined by the server.
The name of the collection tells the server which files you
want. After the collection name come zero or more fields,
separated by white space. These fields answer the questions
listed above. There are two types of fields: flag fields and
value fields. A flag field consists of a keyword standing
alone, e.g., <option>delete</option> or <option>compress</option>. A value field also begins
with a keyword, but the keyword is followed without intervening
white space by <literal>=</literal> and a second word. For example,
<option>release=cvs</option> is a value field.</para>
<para>A <filename>supfile</filename> typically specifies more than
one collection to receive. One way to structure a
<filename>supfile</filename> is to specify all of the relevant
fields explicitly for each collection. However, that tends to
make the <filename>supfile</filename> lines quite long, and it
is inconvenient because most fields are the same for all of the
collections in a <filename>supfile</filename>. CVSup provides a
defaulting mechanism to avoid these problems. Lines beginning
with the special pseudo-collection name <option>*default</option> can be used
to set flags and values which will be used as defaults for the
subsequent collections in the <filename>supfile</filename>. A
default value can be overridden for an individual collection, by
specifying a different value with the collection itself.
Defaults can also be changed or augmented in mid-supfile by
additional <option>*default</option> lines.</para>
<para>With this background, we will now proceed to construct a
<filename>supfile</filename> for receiving and updating the main
source tree of <xref
linkend="current" remap="FreeBSD-current">.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Which files do you want to receive?<anchor
id="cvsup-config-files">
</para>
<para>The files available via CVSup are organized into named
groups called "collections". The collections that are
available are described <xref linkend="cvsup-collec"
remap="here">. In this example, we wish to receive the
entire main source tree for the FreeBSD system. There is
a single large collection <option>src-all</option> which will give us all
of that, except the export-controlled cryptography
support. Let us assume for this example that we are in
the USA or Canada. Then we can get the cryptography code
with one additional collection, <option>cvs-crypto</option>. As a first
step toward constructing our <filename>supfile</filename>,
we simply list these collections, one per line:</para>
<para>
<literallayout> src-all cvs-crypto</literallayout>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Which version(s) of them do you want?<anchor
id="cvsup-config-vers">
</para>
<para>With CVSup, you can receive virtually any version of
the sources that ever existed. That is possible because
the cvsupd server works directly from the CVS repository,
which contains all of the versions. You specify which one
of them you want using the <option>tag=</option> and <option>date=</option> value
fields.</para>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>WARNING:</emphasis> Be very
careful to specify any <option>tag=</option> fields correctly. Some tags
are valid only for certain collections of files. If you
specify an incorrect or misspelled tag, CVSup will delete
files which you probably do not want deleted. In
particular, use <emphasis>only
</emphasis><literal>tag=.</literal> for the <option>ports-*</option>
collections.</para>
<para>The <option>tag=</option> field names a symbolic tag in the
repository. There are two kinds of tags, revision tags
and branch tags. A revision tag refers to a specific
revision. Its meaning stays the same from day to day. A
branch tag, on the other hand, refers to the latest
revision on a given line of development, at any given
time. Because a branch tag does not refer to a specific
revision, it may mean something different tomorrow than it
means today.</para>
<para>Here are the branch tags that users might be
interested in:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>tag=.</term>
<listitem>
<para>The main line of development, also known as
FreeBSD-current.</para>
<note>
<para>The <option>.</option> is not punctuation; it is the name
of the tag. Valid for all collections.</para>
</note>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>tag=RELENG_2_2</term>
<listitem>
<para>The line of development for FreeBSD-2.2.x,
also known as FreeBSD-stable. Not valid for the
ports-* collections.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>tag=RELENG_2_1_0</term>
<listitem>
<para>The line of development for FreeBSD-2.1.x -
this branch is largely obsolete. Not valid for the
ports-* collections.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>Here are the revision tags that users might be
interested in:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>tag=RELENG_2_2_6_RELEASE</term>
<listitem>
<para>FreeBSD-2.2.6. Not valid for the ports-*
collections.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>tag=RELENG_2_2_5_RELEASE</term>
<listitem>
<para>FreeBSD-2.2.5. Not valid for the ports-*
collections.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>tag=RELENG_2_2_2_RELEASE</term>
<listitem>
<para>FreeBSD-2.2.2. Not valid for the ports-*
collections.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>tag=RELENG_2_2_1_RELEASE</term>
<listitem>
<para>FreeBSD-2.2.1. Not valid for the ports-*
collections.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>tag=RELENG_2_2_0_RELEASE</term>
<listitem>
<para>FreeBSD-2.2.0. Not valid for the ports-*
collections.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>tag=RELENG_2_1_7_RELEASE</term>
<listitem>
<para>FreeBSD-2.1.7. Not valid for the ports-*
collections.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>tag=RELENG_2_1_6_1_RELEASE</term>
<listitem>
<para>FreeBSD-2.1.6.1. Not valid for the ports-*
collections.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>tag=RELENG_2_1_6_RELEASE</term>
<listitem>
<para>FreeBSD-2.1.6. Not valid for the ports-*
collections.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>tag=RELENG_2_1_5_RELEASE</term>
<listitem>
<para>FreeBSD-2.1.5. Not valid for the ports-*
collections.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>tag=RELENG_2_1_0_RELEASE</term>
<listitem>
<para>FreeBSD-2.1.0. Not valid for the ports-*
collections.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>WARNING:</emphasis> Be very
careful to type the tag name exactly as shown. CVSup
cannot distinguish between valid and invalid tags. If you
misspell the tag, CVSup will behave as though you had
specified a valid tag which happens to refer to no files
at all. It will delete your existing sources in that
case.</para>
<para>When you specify a branch tag, you normally receive
the latest versions of the files on that line of
development. If you wish to receive some past version,
you can do so by specifying a date with the <option>date=</option> value
field. The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>cvsup</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> manual page explains how to do
that.</para>
<para>For our example, we wish to receive FreeBSD-current.
We add this line at the beginning of our
<filename>supfile</filename>:</para>
<para>
<literallayout> *default tag=.</literallayout>
</para>
<para>There is an important special case that comes into
play if you specify neither a <option>tag=</option> field nor a <option>date=</option>
field. In that case, you receive the actual RCS files
directly from the server's CVS repository, rather than
receiving a particular version. Developers generally
prefer this mode of operation. By maintaining a copy of
the repository itself on their systems, they gain the
ability to browse the revision histories and examine past
versions of files. This gain is achieved at a large cost
in terms of disk space, however.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Where do you want to get them from?<anchor
id="cvsup-config-where">
</para>
<para>We use the <option>host=</option> field to tell cvsup where to obtain
its updates. Any of the <xref linkend="mirrors-cvsup"
remap="CVSup
mirror sites"> will do, though you should try to select
one that's near to you. In this example, we'll use the
primary FreeBSD distribution site,
"cvsup.FreeBSD.org":</para>
<para>
<literallayout> *default
host=cvsup.FreeBSD.org</literallayout>
</para>
<para>On any particular run of cvsup, you can override this
setting on the command line, with <option>-h hostname</option>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Where do you want to put them on your own
machine?<anchor id="cvsup-config-dest">
</para>
<para>The <option>prefix=</option> field tells cvsup where to put the files
it receives. In this example, we will put the source files
directly into our main source tree, <filename>/usr/src</filename>. The <filename>src</filename>
directory is already implicit in the collections we have
chosen to receive, so this is the correct
specification:</para>
<para>
<literallayout> *default prefix=/usr</literallayout>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Where should cvsup maintain its status files?<anchor
id="cvsup-config-status">
</para>
<para>The cvsup client maintains certain status files in
what is called the <quote>base</quote> directory. These files help
CVSup to work more efficiently, by keeping track of which
updates you have already received. We will use the
standard base directory, <filename>/usr/local/etc/cvsup</filename>:</para>
<para>
<literallayout> *default
base=/usr/local/etc/cvsup</literallayout>
</para>
<para>This setting is used by default if it is not specified
in the <filename>supfile</filename>, so we actually do not
need the above line.</para>
<para>If your base directory does not already exist, now
would be a good time to create it. The cvsup client will
refuse to run if the base directory does not exist.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Miscellaneous <filename>supfile</filename> settings:
</para>
<para>There is one more line of boiler plate that normally
needs to be present in the <filename>supfile</filename>:</para>
<para>
<literallayout> *default release=cvs delete
use-rel-suffix compress</literallayout>
</para>
<para><option>release=cvs</option> indicates that the server should get its
information out of the main FreeBSD CVS repository. This
is virtually always the case, but there are other
possibilities which are beyond the scope of this
discussion.</para>
<para><option>delete</option> gives CVSup permission to delete files. You
should always specify this, so that CVSup can keep your
source tree fully up to date. CVSup is careful to delete
only those files for which it is responsible. Any extra
files you happen to have will be left strictly
alone.</para>
<para><option>use-rel-suffix</option> is ... arcane. If you really want to
know about it, see the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>cvsup</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> manual page. Otherwise,
just specify it and do not worry about it.</para>
<para><option>compress</option> enables the use of gzip-style compression
on the communication channel. If your network link is T1
speed or faster, you probably should not use compression.
Otherwise, it helps substantially.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Putting it all together:
</para>
<para>Here is the entire <filename>supfile</filename> for
our example:</para>
<para>
<literallayout> *default tag=. *default
host=cvsup.FreeBSD.org *default prefix=/usr *default
base=/usr/local/etc/cvsup *default release=cvs delete
use-rel-suffix compress src-all
cvs-crypto</literallayout>
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Running CVSup</title>
<para>You are now ready to try an update. The command line for
doing this is quite simple:</para>
<para>
<literallayout> cvsup supfile</literallayout>
</para>
<para>where <filename>supfile</filename> is of course the name of the supfile you
have just created. Assuming you are running under X11, cvsup
will display a GUI window with some buttons to do the usual
things. Press the "go" button, and watch it run.</para>
<para>Since you are updating your actual <filename>/usr/src</filename> tree in this
example, you will need to run the program as root so that cvsup
has the permissions it needs to update your files. Having just
created your configuration file, and having never used this
program before, that might understandably make you nervous.
There is an easy way to do a trial run without touching your
precious files. Just create an empty directory somewhere
convenient, and name it as an extra argument on the command
line:</para>
<para>
<literallayout> mkdir /var/tmp/dest cvsup supfile
/var/tmp/dest</literallayout>
</para>
<para>The directory you specify will be used as the destination
directory for all file updates. CVSup will examine your usual
files in <filename>/usr/src</filename>, but it will not modify
or delete any of them. Any file updates will instead land in
<filename>/var/tmp/dest/usr/src</filename>. CVSup will also
leave its base directory status files untouched when run this
way. The new versions of those files will be written into the
specified directory. As long as you have read access to
<filename>/usr/src</filename>, you do not even need to be root
to perform this kind of trial run.</para>
<para>If you are not running X11 or if you just do not like GUIs,
you should add a couple of options to the command line when you
run cvsup:</para>
<para>
<literallayout> cvsup -g -L 2 supfile</literallayout>
</para>
<para>The <option>-g</option> tells cvsup not to use its GUI. This is automatic
if you are not running X11, but otherwise you have to specify
it.</para>
<para>The <option>-L 2</option> tells cvsup to print out the details of all the
file updates it is doing. There are three levels of verbosity,
from <option>-L 0</option> to <option>-L 2</option>. The default is 0, which means total
silence except for error messages.</para>
<para>There are plenty of other options available. For a brief
list of them, type <command>cvsup -H</command>. For more detailed descriptions,
see the manual page.</para>
<para>Once you are satisfied with the way updates are working, you
can arrange for regular runs of cvsup using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>cron</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>. Obviously,
you should not let cvsup use its GUI when running it from
cron.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="cvsup-collec">
<title>CVSup File Collections</title>
<para>The file collections available via CVSup are organized
hierarchically. There are a few large collections, and they are
divided into smaller sub-collections. Receiving a large
collection is equivalent to receiving each of its
sub-collections. The hierarchical relationships among
collections are reflected by the use of indentation in the list
below.</para>
<para> The most commonly used collections are <literal>src-all</literal>, <literal>cvs-crypto</literal>, and <literal>ports-all</literal>. The other collections are used
only by small groups of people for specialized purposes, and
some mirror sites may not carry all of them.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term><literal>cvs-all
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>The main FreeBSD CVS repository, excluding the
export-restricted cryptography code.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term><literal>distrib
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Files related to the distribution and
mirroring of FreeBSD.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>doc-all
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Sources for the FreeBSD handbook and other
documentation.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-all
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>The FreeBSD ports collection.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-archivers
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Archiving tools.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-astro
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Astronomical ports.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-audio
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Sound support.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-base
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Miscellaneous files at the top of
/usr/ports.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-benchmarks
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Benchmarks.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-biology
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Biology.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-cad
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Computer aided design tools.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-chinese
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Chinese language support.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-comms
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Communication software.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-converters
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>character code converters.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-databases
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Databases.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-devel
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Development utilities.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-editors
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Editors.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-emulators
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Emulators for other operating
systems.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-games
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Games.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-german
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>German language support.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-graphics
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Graphics utilities.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-japanese
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Japanese language support.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-korean
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Korean language support.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-lang
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Programming languages.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-mail
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Mail software.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-math
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Numerical computation
software.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-mbone
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>MBone applications.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-misc
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Miscellaneous utilities.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-net
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Networking software.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-news
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>USENET news software.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-plan9
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Various programs from Plan9.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-print
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Printing software.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-russian
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Russian language support.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-security
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Security utilities.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-shells
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Command line shells.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-sysutils
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>System utilities.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-textproc
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>text processing utilities (does not
include desktop publishing).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-vietnamese
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Vietnamese language support.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-www
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Software related to the World Wide
Web.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>ports-x11
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>X11 software.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>src-all
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>The main FreeBSD sources, excluding the
export-restricted cryptography code.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term><literal>src-base
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Miscellaneous files at the top of
<filename>/usr/src</filename>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>src-bin
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>User utilities that may be needed in
single-user mode
(<filename>/usr/src/bin</filename>).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>src-contrib
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Utilities and libraries from outside
the FreeBSD project, used relatively
unmodified
(<filename>/usr/src/contrib</filename>).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>src-etc
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>System configuration files
(<filename>/usr/src/etc</filename>).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>src-games
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Games
(<filename>/usr/src/games</filename>).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>src-gnu
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Utilities covered by the GNU Public
License
(<filename>/usr/src/gnu</filename>).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>src-include
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Header files
(<filename>/usr/src/include</filename>).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>src-kerberosIV
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>KerberosIV security package
(<filename>/usr/src/kerberosIV</filename>).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>src-lib
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Libraries
(<filename>/usr/src/lib</filename>).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>src-libexec
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>System programs normally executed by
other programs
(<filename>/usr/src/libexec</filename>).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>src-release
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Files required to produce a FreeBSD
release
(<filename>/usr/src/release</filename>).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>src-sbin
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>System utilities for single-user
mode
(<filename>/usr/src/sbin</filename>).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>src-share
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Files that can be shared across
multiple systems
(<filename>/usr/src/share</filename>).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>src-sys
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>The kernel
(<filename>/usr/src/sys</filename>).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>src-tools
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Various tools for the maintenance of
FreeBSD
(<filename>/usr/src/tools</filename>).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>src-usrbin
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>User utilities
(<filename>/usr/src/usr.bin</filename>).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>src-usrsbin
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>System utilities
(<filename>/usr/src/usr.sbin</filename>).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>www
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>The sources for the World Wide Web
data.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>cvs-crypto
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>The export-restricted cryptography code.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term><literal>src-crypto
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Export-restricted utilities and libraries
from outside the FreeBSD project, used
relatively unmodified
(<filename>/usr/src/crypto</filename>).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>src-eBones
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>Kerberos and DES
(<filename>/usr/src/eBones</filename>).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>src-secure
release=cvs</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>DES
(<filename>/usr/src/secure</filename>).</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>distrib
release=self</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>The CVSup server's own configuration files. Used by
CVSup mirror sites.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>gnats
release=current</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>The GNATS bug-tracking database.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>mail-archive
release=current</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>FreeBSD mailing list archive.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><literal>www
release=current</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>The installed World Wide Web data. Used by WWW
mirror sites.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Announcements, Questions, and Bug Reports</title>
<para>Most FreeBSD-related discussion of CVSup takes place on the
&a.hackers;. New versions of the software are announced there,
as well as on the &a.announce;.</para>
<para>Questions and bug reports should be addressed to the author
of the program at <ulink
URL="mailto:cvsup-bugs@polstra.com">cvsup-bugs@polstra.com</ulink>.
</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="makeworld">
<title>Using <command>make world</command> to rebuild your
system</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.nik;.</emphasis></para>
<para>Once you have synchronised your local source tree against a
particular version of FreeBSD (<literal>stable</literal>,
<literal>current</literal> and so on) you must then use
the source tree to rebuild the system.</para>
<para>Currently, the best source of information on how to do that is a
tutorial available from <ulink
URL="http://www.nothing-going-on.demon.co.uk/FreeBSD/make-world/make-world.html">http://www.nothing-going-on.demon.co.uk/FreeBSD/make-world/make-world.html</ulink>.</para>
<para>A successor to this tutorial will be integrated into the
handbook.</para>
</sect1>
</chapter>
<chapter
id="contrib">
<title>Contributing to FreeBSD</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.jkh;.</emphasis></para>
<para>So you want to contribute something to FreeBSD? That is great! We
can always use the help, and FreeBSD is one of those systems that
<emphasis>relies</emphasis> on the contributions of its user base in
order to survive. Your contributions are not only appreciated, they
are vital to FreeBSD's continued growth!</para>
<para>Contrary to what some people might also have you believe, you do
not need to be a hot-shot programmer or a close personal friend of the
FreeBSD core team in order to have your contributions accepted. The
FreeBSD Project's development is done by a large and growing number of
international contributors whose ages and areas of technical expertise
vary greatly, and there is always more work to be done than there are
people available to do it.</para>
<para>Since the FreeBSD project is responsible for an entire operating
system environment (and its installation) rather than just a kernel or
a few scattered utilities, our <filename>TODO</filename> list also spans a very wide
range of tasks, from documentation, beta testing and presentation to
highly specialized types of kernel development. No matter what your
skill level, there is almost certainly something you can do to help
the project!</para>
<para>Commercial entities engaged in FreeBSD-related enterprises are
also encouraged to contact us. Need a special extension to make your
product work? You will find us receptive to your requests, given that
they are not too outlandish. Working on a value-added product?
Please let us know! We may be able to work cooperatively on some
aspect of it. The free software world is challenging a lot of
existing assumptions about how software is developed, sold, and
maintained throughout its life cycle, and we urge you to at least give
it a second look.</para>
<sect1>
<title>What Is Needed</title>
<para>The following list of tasks and sub-projects represents
something of an amalgam of the various core team <filename>TODO</filename> lists and user
requests we have collected over the last couple of months. Where
possible, tasks have been ranked by degree of urgency. If you are
interested in working on one of the tasks you see here, send mail to
the coordinator listed by clicking on their names. If no
coordinator has been appointed, maybe you would like to
volunteer?</para>
<sect2>
<title>High priority tasks</title>
<para>The following tasks are considered to be urgent, usually
because they represent something that is badly broken or sorely
needed:
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>3-stage boot issues. Overall coordination:
&a.hackers;</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Autodetect memory over 64MB properly.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Move userconfig (-c) into 3rd stage boot.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Do WinNT compatible drive tagging so that the 3rd
stage can provide an accurate mapping of BIOS
geometries for disks.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Filesystem problems. Overall coordination: &a.fs;
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Fix the MSDOS file system.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Clean up and document the nullfs filesystem code.
Coordinator: &a.gibbs;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Fix the union file system. Coordinator:
&a.dyson;</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Implement kernel and user vm86 support. Coordinator:
&a.hackers;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Implement Int13 vm86 disk driver. Coordinator:
&a.hackers;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>SCSI driver issues. Overall coordination:
&a.hackers;</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Support tagged queuing generically. Requires a
rewrite of how we do our command queuing, but we need
this anyway to for prioritized I/O (CD-R
writers/scanners).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Better error handling (Busy status and
retries).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Merged Scatter-Gather list creation code.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Kernel issues. Overall coordination: &a.hackers;</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Complete the eisaconf conversion of all existing
drivers.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Change all interrupt routines to take a (void *)
instead of using unit numbers.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Merge EISA/PCI/ISA interrupt registration
code.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Split PCI/EISA/ISA probes out from drivers like
bt742a.c (WIP)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Fix the syscons ALT-Fn/vt switching hangs.
Coordinator: &a.sos;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Rewrite the Intel Etherexpress 16 driver.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Merge the 3c509 and 3c590 drivers (essentially
provide a PCI probe for ep.c).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Support Adaptec 3985 (first as a simple 3 channel
SCSI card) Coordinator: &a.gibbs;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Support Advansys SCSI controller products.
Coordinator: &a.gibbs;</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Medium priority tasks</title>
<para>The following tasks need to be done, but not with any
particular urgency:
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Port AFS (Andrew File System) to FreeBSD Coordinator:
<emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:ajones@ctron.com">Alexander Seth
Jones</ulink></emphasis>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>MCA support? This should be finalized one way or the
other.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Full LKM based driver support/Configuration Manager.
</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Devise a way to do all LKM registration without
ld. This means some kind of symbol table in the
kernel.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Write a configuration manager (in the 3rd stage
boot?) that probes your hardware in a sane manner,
keeps only the LKMs required for your hardware,
etc.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>PCMCIA/PCCARD. Coordinators: &a.nate; and &a.phk;
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Documentation!</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Reliable operation of the pcic driver (needs
testing).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Recognizer and handler for
<filename>sio.c</filename> (mostly done).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Recognizer and handler for
<filename>ed.c</filename> (mostly done).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Recognizer and handler for
<filename>ep.c</filename> (mostly done).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>User-mode recognizer and handler (partially
done).</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Advanced Power Management. Coordinators: &a.nate; and
&a.phk;
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>APM sub-driver (mostly done).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>IDE/ATA disk sub-driver (partially done).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>syscons/pcvt sub-driver.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Integration with the PCMCIA/PCCARD drivers
(suspend/resume).</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Low priority tasks</title>
<para>The following tasks are purely cosmetic or represent such an
investment of work that it is not likely that anyone will get them
done anytime soon:</para>
<para>The first 20 items are from Terry Lambert
&lt;terry@lambert.org&gt;
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Ability to make BIOS calls from protected mode using V86
mode on the processor and return the results via a mapped
interrupt IPC mechanism to the protected mode caller.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Drivers built into the kernel that use the BIOS call
mechanism to allow them to be independent of the actual
underlying hardware the same way that DOS is independent of
the underlying hardware. This includes NetWork and ASPI
drivers loaded in DOS prior to BSD being loaded by a
DOS-based loader program, which means potential polling,
which means DOS-not-busy interrupt generation for V86
machines by the protected mode kernel.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>An image format that allows tagging of such drivers data
and text areas in the default kernel executable so that that
portion of the kernel address space may be recovered at a
later time, after hardware specific protected mode drivers
have been loaded and activated. This includes separation of
BIOS based drivers from each other, since it is better to
run with a BIOS based driver in all cases than to not run at
all.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Abstraction of the bus interface mechanism. Currently,
PCMCIA, EISA, and PCI busses are assumed to be bridged from
ISA. This is not something which should be assumed.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>A configuration manager that knows about PNP events,
including power management events, insertion, extraction,
and bus (PNP ISA and PCMCIA bridging chips) vs. card level
event management.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>A topological sort mechanism for assigning reassignable
addresses that do not collide with other reassignable and
non-reassignable device space resource usage by fixed
devices.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>A registration based mechanism for hardware services
registration. Specifically, a device centric registration
mechanism for timer and sound and other system critical
service providers. Consider Timer2 and Timer0 and speaker
services as one example of a single monolithic service
provider.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>A kernel exported symbol space in the kernel data space
accessible by an LKM loader mechanism that does relocation
and symbol space manipulation. The intent of this interface
is to support the ability to demand load and unload kernel
modules.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>NetWare Server (protected mode ODI driver) loader and
subservices to allow the use of ODI card drivers supplied
with network cards. The same thing for NDIS drivers and
NetWare SCSI drivers.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>An "upgrade system" option that works on Linux boxes
instead of just previous rev FreeBSD boxes.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Splitting of the console driver into abstraction layers,
both to make it easier to port and to kill the X and
ThinkPad and PS/2 mouse and LED and console switching and
bouncing NumLock problems once and for all.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Other kernel emulation environments for other foreign
drivers as opportunity permits. SCO and Solaris are good
candidates, followed by UnixWare, etc.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Processor emulation environments for execution of
foreign binaries. This is easier than it sounds if the
system call interface does not change much.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Streams to allow the use of commercial streams drivers.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Kernel multithreading (requires kernel preemption).
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Symmetric Multiprocessing with kernel preemption
(requires kernel preemption).
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>A concerted effort at support for portable computers.
This is somewhat handled by changing PCMCIA bridging rules
and power management event handling. But there are things
like detecting internal vs. external display and picking a
different screen resolution based on that fact, not spinning
down the disk if the machine is in dock, and allowing
dock-based cards to disappear without affecting the machines
ability to boot (same issue for PCMCIA).
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Reorganization of the source tree for multiple platform
ports.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>A <command>make world</command> that "makes the world" (rename the
current one to <command>make regress</command> if that is all it is good
for).
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>A 4M (preferably smaller!) memory footprint.
</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Smaller tasks</title>
<para>Most of the tasks listed in the previous sections require
either a considerable investment of time or an in-depth knowledge
of the FreeBSD kernel (or both). However, there are also many
useful tasks which are suitable for &quot;weekend hackers&quot;,
or people without programming skills.</para>
<para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>If you run FreeBSD-current and have a good Internet
connection, there is a machine current.freebsd.org which
builds a full release once a day - every now and again, try
and install the latest release from it and report any
failures in the process.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Read the freebsd-bugs mailing list. There might be a
problem you can comment constructively on or with patches
you can test. Or you could even try to fix one of the
problems yourself.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Read through the FAQ and Handbook periodically. If
anything is badly explained, out of date or even just
completely wrong, let us know. Even better, send us a fix
(SGML is not difficult to learn, but there is no objection
to ASCII submissions).
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Help translate FreeBSD documentation into your native
language (if not already available) - just send an email to
&a.doc; asking if anyone is working on it. Note that you
are not committing yourself to translating every single
FreeBSD document by doing this - in fact, the documentation
most in need of translation is the installation
instructions.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Read the freebsd-questions mailing list and the
newsgroup comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.misc occasionally (or even
regularly). It can be very satisfying to share your
expertise and help people solve their problems; sometimes
you may even learn something new yourself! These forums can
also be a source of ideas for things to work on.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If you know of any bugfixes which have been successfully
applied to -current but have not been merged into -stable
after a decent interval (normally a couple of weeks), send
the committer a polite reminder.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Move contributed software to
<filename>src/contrib</filename> in the source tree.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Make sure code in <filename>src/contrib</filename> is up
to date.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Look for year 2000 bugs (and fix any you find!)
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Build the source tree (or just part of it) with extra
warnings enabled and clean up the warnings.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Fix warnings for ports which do deprecated things like
using gets() or including malloc.h.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If you have contributed any ports, send your patches
back to the original author (this will make your life easier
when they bring out the next version)
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Suggest further tasks for this list!
</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>How to Contribute</title>
<para>Contributions to the system generally fall into one or more of
the following 6 categories:</para>
<sect2
id="contrib-general">
<title>Bug reports and general commentary
</title>
<para>An idea or suggestion of <emphasis>general</emphasis>
technical interest should be mailed to the &a.hackers;. Likewise,
people with an interest in such things (and a tolerance for a
<emphasis>high</emphasis> volume of mail!) may subscribe to the
hackers mailing list by sending mail to &a.majordomo;. See
<xref linkend="eresources-mail" remap="mailing lists"> for more
information about this and other mailing lists.</para>
<para>If you find a bug or are submitting a specific change, please
report it using the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>send-pr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>program or its
<ulink URL="http://www.freebsd.org/send-pr.html">WEB-based
equivalent</ulink>. Try to fill-in each field of the bug report.
Unless they exceed 65KB, include any patches directly in the
report. Consider compressing them and using
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>uuencode</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> if they exceed 20KB.</para>
<para>After filing a report, you should receive confirmation along
with a tracking number. Keep this tracking number so that you can
update us with details about the problem by sending mail to <ulink
URL="mailto:bug-followup@FreeBSD.ORG">bug-followup@FreeBSD.ORG</ulink>. Use the number as the message subject, e.g. <literal>"Re: kern/3377"</literal>. Additional information for any bug report should be submitted this way.</para>
<para>If you do not receive confirmation in a timely fashion (3 days
to a week, depending on your email connection) or are, for some
reason, unable to use the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>send-pr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> command,
then you may ask someone to file it for you by sending mail to the
&a.bugs;.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Changes to the documentation</title>
<para>Changes to the documentation are overseen by the &a.doc;. Send
submissions and changes (even small ones are welcome!) using
send-pr as described in
<xref linkend="contrib-general" remap="Bug Reports and General
Commentary">.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Changes to existing source code</title>
<para>An addition or change to the existing source code is a
somewhat trickier affair and depends a lot on how far out of date
you are with the current state of the core FreeBSD development.
There is a special on-going release of FreeBSD known as
<quote>FreeBSD-current</quote> which is made available in a variety of ways
for the convenience of developers working actively on the system.
See <xref linkend="current"
remap="Staying current with FreeBSD"> for more information
about getting and using FreeBSD-current.</para>
<para>Working from older sources unfortunately means that your
changes may sometimes be too obsolete or too divergent for easy
re-integration into FreeBSD. Chances of this can be minimized
somewhat by subscribing to the &a.announce; and the &a.current;
lists, where discussions on the current state of the system take
place.</para>
<para>Assuming that you can manage to secure fairly up-to-date
sources to base your changes on, the next step is to produce a set
of diffs to send to the FreeBSD maintainers. This is done with
the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>diff</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> command, with the `context diff'
form being preferred. For example:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; diff -c oldfile newfile</screen>
</informalexample> or
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; diff -c -r olddir newdir</screen>
</informalexample> would generate such a set of context diffs for
the given source file or directory hierarchy. See the man page
for <citerefentry><refentrytitle>diff</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more details.</para>
<para>Once you have a set of diffs (which you may test with the
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>patch</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> command), you should submit them for
inclusion with FreeBSD. Use the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>send-pr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>
program as described in
<xref linkend="contrib-general" remap="Bug Reports and General
Commentary">. <emphasis>Do not</emphasis> just send the diffs to
the &a.hackers; or they will get lost! We greatly appreciate your
submission (this is a volunteer project!); because we are busy, we
may not be able to address it immediately, but it will remain in
the pr database until we do.</para>
<para>If you feel it appropriate (e.g. you have added, deleted, or
renamed files), bundle your changes into a <command>tar</command> file and run the
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>uuencode</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> program on it. Shar archives are
also welcome.</para>
<para>If your change is of a potentially sensitive nature, e.g. you
are unsure of copyright issues governing its further distribution
or you are simply not ready to release it without a tighter review
first, then you should send it to &a.core; directly rather than
submitting it with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>send-pr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>. The core
mailing list reaches a much smaller group of people who do much of
the day-to-day work on FreeBSD. Note that this group is also
<emphasis>very busy</emphasis> and so you should only send mail to
them where it is truly necessary.</para>
<para>Please refer to <emphasis remap=tt>man 9 intro</emphasis> and
<emphasis remap=tt>man 9 style</emphasis> for some information on
coding style. We would appreciate it if you were at least aware
of this information before submitting code.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>New code or major value-added packages</title>
<para>In the rare case of a significant contribution of a large body
work, or the addition of an important new feature to FreeBSD, it
becomes almost always necessary to either send changes as
uuencode'd tar files or upload them to our ftp site <ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD/incoming">ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD/incoming</ulink>.</para>
<para>When working with large amounts of code, the touchy subject of
copyrights also invariably comes up. Acceptable copyrights for
code included in FreeBSD are:</para>
<para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>The BSD copyright. This copyright is most preferred due
to its <quote>no strings attached</quote> nature and general
attractiveness to commercial enterprises. Far from
discouraging such commercial use, the FreeBSD Project
actively encourages such participation by commercial
interests who might eventually be inclined to invest
something of their own into FreeBSD.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>The GNU Public License, or <QUOTE>GPL</QUOTE>. This license is not
quite as popular with us due to the amount of extra effort
demanded of anyone using the code for commercial purposes,
but given the sheer quantity of GPL'd code we currently
require (compiler, assembler, text formatter, etc) it would
be silly to refuse additional contributions under this
license. Code under the GPL also goes into a different part
of the tree, that being <filename>/sys/gnu</filename> or
<filename>/usr/src/gnu</filename>, and is therefore easily
identifiable to anyone for whom the GPL presents a
problem.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
<para>Contributions coming under any other type of copyright must be
carefully reviewed before their inclusion into FreeBSD will be
considered. Contributions for which particularly restrictive
commercial copyrights apply are generally rejected, though the
authors are always encouraged to make such changes available
through their own channels.</para>
<para>To place a <quote>BSD-style</quote> copyright on your work, include the
following text at the very beginning of every source code file you
wish to protect, replacing the text between the <literal>%%</literal> with the appropriate information.
<informalexample>
<screen>Copyright (c) %%proper_years_here%% %%your_name_here%%,
%%your_state%% %%your_zip%%. All rights reserved.
Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or
without modification, are permitted provided that the
following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source
code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of
conditions and the following disclaimer as the first lines of
this file unmodified. 2. Redistributions in binary form must
reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions
and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other
materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS
PROVIDED BY %%your_name_here%% ``AS IS'' AND ANY EXPRESS OR
IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR
PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL %%your_name_here%%
BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL,
EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT
LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS
OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER
CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT,
STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE)
ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF
ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
&#36;Id&#36;</screen>
</informalexample> For your convenience, a copy of this text can
be found in
<filename>/usr/share/examples/etc/bsd-style-copyright</filename>.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="porting">
<title>Porting an existing piece of free software</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.jkh;, &a.gpalmer;, &a.asami; and
&a.obrien;.<!-- <br> -->28 August 1996.</emphasis></para>
<para>The porting of freely available software, while perhaps not as
gratifying as developing your own from scratch, is still a vital
part of FreeBSD's growth and of great usefulness to those who
would not otherwise know where to turn for it. All ported
software is organized into a carefully organized hierarchy known
as <quote>the ports collection</quote>. The collection enables a new user to
get a quick and complete overview of what is available for FreeBSD
in an easy-to-compile form. It also saves considerable space by
not actually containing the majority of the sources being ported,
but merely those differences required for running under FreeBSD.
</para>
<para>What follows are some guidelines for creating a new port for
FreeBSD 3.x. The bulk of the work is done by
<filename>/usr/share/mk/bsd.port.mk</filename>, which all port
Makefiles include. Please refer to that file for more details on
the inner workings of the ports collection. Even if you don't
hack Makefiles daily, it is well commented, and you will still
gain much knowledge from it.</para>
<sect3
id="porting-starting">
<title>Before Starting the Port</title>
<note>
<para>Only a fraction of the overridable variables
(<literal>&#36;{..}</literal>) are mentioned in
this document. Most (if not all) are documented at the start
of <filename>bsd.port.mk</filename>. This file uses a
non-standard tab setting. <command>Emacs</command> and
<command>Vim</command> should recognize the setting on loading
the file. <command>vi</command> or <command>ex</command> can
be set to using the correct value by typing <literal>:set
tabstop=4</literal> once the file has been loaded.</para>
</note>
<para>You may come across code that needs modifications or
conditional compilation based upon what version of UNIX it is
running under. If you need to make such changes to the code for
conditional compilation, make sure you make the changes as
general as possible so that we can back-port code to FreeBSD 1.x
systems and cross-port to other BSD systems such as 4.4BSD from
CSRG, BSD/386, 386BSD, NetBSD, and OpenBSD.</para>
<para>The preferred way to tell 4.3BSD/Reno (1990) and newer
versions of the BSD code apart is by using the
<acronym>BSD</acronym> macro defined in
<filename>&lt;sys/param.h&gt;</filename>. Hopefully that file
is already included; if not, add the code:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>#ifdef (defined(__unix__) || defined(unix)) &amp;&amp;
!defined(USG) #include &lt;sys/param.h&gt; #endif</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>to the proper place in the <filename>.c</filename> file. We
believe that every system that defines these to symbols has
<filename>sys/param.h</filename>. If you find a system that
doesn't, we would like to know. Please send mail to
&a.ports;.</para>
<para>Another way is to use the GNU Autoconf style of doing
this:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>#ifdef HAVE_SYS_PARAM_H #include &lt;sys/param.h&gt;
#endif</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Don't forget to add <symbol>-DHAVE_SYS_PARAM_H</symbol> to
the <acronym>CFLAGS</acronym> in the Makefile for this
method.</para>
<para>Once you have <filename>sys/param.h</filename>
included, you may use:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>#if (defined(BSD) &amp;&amp; (BSD &gt;=
199103))</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>to detect if the code is being compiled on a 4.3 Net2 code
base or newer (e.g. FreeBSD 1.x, 4.3/Reno, NetBSD 0.9, 386BSD,
BSD/386 1.1 and below).</para>
<para>Use:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>#if (defined(BSD) &amp;&amp; (BSD &gt;=
199306))</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>to detect if the code is being compiled on a 4.4 code base
or newer (e.g. FreeBSD 2.x, 4.4, NetBSD 1.0, BSD/386 2.0 or
above).</para>
<para>The value of the BSD macro is 199506 for the 4.4BSD-Lite2
code base. This is stated for informational purposes only. It
should not be used to distinguish between version of FreeBSD
based only on 4.4-Lite vs. versions that have merged in changes
from 4.4-Lite2. The __FreeBSD__ macro should be used
instead.</para>
<para>Use sparingly:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><symbol>__FreeBSD__</symbol> is defined in all
versions of FreeBSD. Use it if the change you are making
ONLY affects FreeBSD. Porting gotchas like the use of
<literal>sys_errlist[]</literal> vs
<function>strerror()</function> are Berkeleyisms, not
FreeBSD changes.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>In FreeBSD 2.x, <symbol>__FreeBSD__</symbol> is
defined to be <literal>2</literal>. In earlier
versions, it is <literal>1</literal>. Later
versions will bump it to match their major version number.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If you need to tell the difference between a FreeBSD
1.x system and a FreeBSD 2.x or 3.x system, usually the
right answer is to use the <acronym>BSD</acronym> macros
described above. If there actually is a FreeBSD specific
change (such as special shared library options when using
<command>ld</command>) then it is OK to use
<symbol>__FreeBSD__</symbol> and <literal>#if
__FreeBSD__ &gt; 1</literal> to detect a FreeBSD 2.x
and later system. If you need more granularity in
detecting FreeBSD systems since 2.0-RELEASE you can use
the following:
<informalexample>
<screen>#if __FreeBSD__ &gt;= 2 #include
&lt;osreldate.h&gt; # if __FreeBSD_version &gt;=
199504 /* 2.0.5+ release specific code here */ #
endif #endif</screen>
</informalexample> <symbol>__FreeBSD_version</symbol>
values:
<informalexample>
<screen>2.0-RELEASE: 199411
2.1-current's: 199501, 199503
2.0.5-RELEASE: 199504
2.2-current before 2.1: 199508
2.1.0-RELEASE: 199511
2.2-current before 2.1.5: 199512
2.1.5-RELEASE: 199607
2.2-current before 2.1.6: 199608
2.1.6-RELEASE: 199612
2.1.7-RELEASE: 199612
2.2-RELEASE: 220000
2.2.1-RELEASE: 220000 (yes,
no change) 2.2-STABLE after 2.2.1-RELEASE: 220000
(yes, still no change) 2.2-STABLE after texinfo-3.9:
221001 2.2-STABLE after top: 221002
2.2.2-RELEASE: 222000
2.2-STABLE after 2.2.2-RELEASE: 222001
2.2.5-RELEASE: 225000
2.2-STABLE after 2.2.5-RELEASE: 225001
2.2-STABLE after ldconfig -R merge: 225002
2.2.6-RELEASE: 226000
2.2-STABLE after 2.2.6-RELEASE: 226001
3.0-current before mount(2) change: 300000
3.0-current as of Nov 1997:
300001</screen>
</informalexample></para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
<note>
<para>Note that 2.2-STABLE sometimes identifies itself as
<quote>2.2.5-STABLE</quote> after the 2.2.5-RELEASE. The pattern used to
be year followed by the month, but we decided to change it
to a more straightforward major/minor system starting from
2.2. This is because the parallel development on several
branches made it infeasible to classify the releases simply
by their real release dates. If you are making a port now,
you don't have to worry about old -current's; they are
listed here just for your reference.</para>
</note>
</para>
<para>In the hundreds of ports that have been done, there have
only been one or two cases where <symbol>__FreeBSD__</symbol>
should have been used. Just because an earlier port screwed up
and used it in the wrong place does not mean you should do so
too.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Quick Porting</title>
<para>This section tells you how to do a quick port. In many
cases, it is not enough, but we will see.</para>
<para>First, get the original tarball and put it into <makevar>&#36;{DISTDIR}</makevar>, which defaults to
<filename>/usr/ports/distfiles</filename>.</para>
<note>
<para>The following assumes that the software compiled
out-of-the-box, i.e., there was absolutely no change required
for the port to work on your FreeBSD box. If you needed to
change something, you will have to refer to the next section
too.</para>
</note>
<sect4>
<title>Writing the <filename>Makefile</filename></title>
<para>The minimal <filename>Makefile</filename> would
look something like this:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> # New ports collection makefile for: oneko #
Version required: 1.1b # Date created: 5 December
1994 # Whom: asami # # &#36;Id&#36; #
DISTNAME= oneko-1.1b CATEGORIES= games MASTER_SITES=
ftp://ftp.cs.columbia.edu/archives/X11R5/contrib/
MAINTAINER= asami@FreeBSD.ORG USE_IMAKE= yes .include
&lt;bsd.port.mk&gt;</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>See if you can figure it out. Do not worry about the
contents of the <literal>&#36;Id&#36;</literal>
line, it will be filled in automatically by CVS when the port
is imported to our main ports tree. You can find a more
detailed example in the <xref
linkend="porting-samplem" remap="sample Makefile">
section.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Writing the description files</title>
<para>There are three required description files that are
required for any port, whether they actually package or not.
They are <filename>COMMENT</filename>,
<filename>DESCR</filename>, and <filename>PLIST</filename>,
and reside in the <filename>pkg</filename>
subdirectory.</para>
<sect5>
<title><filename>COMMENT</filename></title>
<para>This is the one-line description of the port.
<emphasis>PLEASE do not include the package name (or version
number of the software) in the comment.</emphasis> Here is
an example:
<informalexample>
<screen>A cat chasing a mouse all over the
screen.</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect5>
<sect5>
<title><filename>DESCR</filename></title>
<para>This is a longer description of the port. One to a few
paragraphs concisely explaining what the port does is
sufficient.</para>
<note>
<para>This is <emphasis>not</emphasis> a manual nor an
in-depth description on how to use or compile the port. In
particular, <emphasis>please do not just copy the
<filename>README</filename> file here</emphasis>, unless,
of course, it is a concise description of the port.</para>
</note>
<para>It is recommended that you sign the name at the end of
this file, as in:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>This is a port of oneko, in which a cat chases a
poor mouse all over the screen. : (etc.) - Satoshi
asami@cs.berkeley.edu</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect5>
<sect5>
<title><filename>PLIST</filename></title>
<para>This file lists all the files installed by the port. It
is also called the `packing list' because the package is
generated by packing the files listed here. The pathnames
are relative to the installation prefix (usually
<filename>/usr/local</filename> or
<filename>/usr/X11R6</filename>). Also it is assumed the
manpages will be compressed.</para>
<para>Here is a small example:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>bin/oneko man/man1/oneko.1.gz
lib/X11/app-defaults/Oneko lib/X11/oneko/cat1.xpm
lib/X11/oneko/cat2.xpm lib/X11/oneko/mouse.xpm</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Refer to the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pkg_create</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> man page
for details on the packing list.</para>
</sect5>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Creating the checksum file</title>
<para>Just type <command>make makesum</command>.
The ports make rules will automatically generate the file
<filename>files/md5</filename>.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Testing the port</title>
<para>You should make sure that the port rules do exactly what
you want it to do, including packaging up the port. Try doing
<command>make install</command>, <command>make package</command> and then <command>make deinstall</command> and see if all the files
and directories are correctly deleted. Then do a <command>pkg_add `make package-name`.tgz</command> and see
if everything re-appears and works correctly. Then do another
<command>make deinstall</command> and then
<command>make reinstall; make package</command>
to make sure you haven't included in the packing list any
files that are not installed by your port.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="porting-submitting">
<title>Submitting the port</title>
<para>Now that you are happy with your port, the only thing
remaining is to put it in the main FreeBSD ports tree and make
everybody else happy about it too. To accomplish this, pack
the necessary files (everything described in this section --
in particular do <emphasis>not</emphasis> include the original
source tarball, the <filename>work</filename>
subdirectory or the package) into a
<filename>.tar.gz</filename> file, stick it in the directory
<informalexample>
<screen>ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD/incoming/</screen>
</informalexample> and send mail to us using
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>send-pr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> (please classify it as category
`ports' and class `change-request'). There is no need to
upload the package, we will build it by ourselves. We will
take a look, get back to you if necessary, and put it in the
tree. Your name will also appear in the list of `Additional
FreeBSD contributors' on the FreeBSD Handbook and other files.
Isn't that great?!? <emphasis remap=tt>:)</emphasis></para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Slow Porting</title>
<para>Ok, so it was not that simple, and the port required some
modifications to get it to work. In this section, we will
explain, step by step, how to modify it to get it to work with
the ports paradigm.</para>
<sect4>
<title>How things work</title>
<para>First, this is the sequence of events which occurs when
the user first types <command>make</command> in
your port's directory, and you may find that having
<filename>bsd.port.mk</filename> in another window while you
read this really helps to understand it.</para>
<para>But do not worry if you do not really understand what
<filename>bsd.port.mk</filename> is doing, not many people
do... <emphasis remap=tt>:&gt;</emphasis></para>
<para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>The fetch target is run. The fetch target is
responsible for making sure that the tarball exists
locally in <makevar>&#36;{DISTDIR}</makevar>.
If fetch cannot find the required files in <makevar>&#36;{DISTDIR}</makevar> it will look up the
URL <makevar>&#36;{MASTER_SITES}</makevar>,
which is set in the Makefile, as well as our main ftp
site at <ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/distfiles/">ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/distfiles/,</ulink> where we put sanctioned distfiles as backup. It will then attempt to fetch the named distribution file with <makevar>&#36;{FETCH}</makevar>, assuming that the requesting site has direct access to the Internet. If that succeeds, it will save the file in <makevar>&#36;{DISTDIR}</makevar> for future use and proceed.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>The extract target is run. It looks for your ports'
distribution file in <makevar>&#36;{DISTDIR}</makevar> (typically a gzip'd
tarball) and unpacks it into a temporary subdirectory
specified by <makevar>&#36;{WRKDIR}</makevar>
(defaults to <filename>work</filename>).
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>The patch target is run. First, any patches defined
in <makevar>&#36;{PATCHFILES}</makevar> are
applied. Second, if any patches are found in <makevar>&#36;{PATCHDIR}</makevar> (defaults to the
<filename>patches</filename> subdirectory), they are
applied at this time in alphabetical order.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>The configure target is run. This can do any one of
many different things.
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>If it exists,
<filename>scripts/configure</filename> is run.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If <makevar>&#36;{HAS_CONFIGURE}</makevar> or
<makevar>&#36;{GNU_CONFIGURE}</makevar>
is set,
<filename>&#36;{WRKSRC}/configure</filename> is
run.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If <makevar>&#36;{USE_IMAKE}</makevar> is set,
<makevar>&#36;{XMKMF}</makevar>
(default: <command>xmkmf
-a</command>) is run.
</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>The build target is run. This is responsible for
descending into the ports' private working directory
(<makevar>&#36;{WRKSRC}</makevar>) and
building it. If <makevar>&#36;{USE_GMAKE}</makevar> is set, GNU
<command>make</command> will be used,
otherwise the system <command>make</command>
will be used.
</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
<para>The above are the default actions. In addition, you can
define targets <maketarget>pre-&lt;something&gt;</maketarget> or <maketarget>post-&lt;something&gt;</maketarget>, or put scripts
with those names, in the <filename>scripts</filename>
subdirectory, and they will be run before or after the default
actions are done.</para>
<para>For example, if you have a <maketarget>post-extract</maketarget> target defined in your
Makefile, and a file <filename>pre-build</filename> in the
<filename remap="tt">scripts</filename> subdirectory, the
<maketarget>post-extract</maketarget> target will be
called after the regular extraction actions, and the
<filename>pre-build</filename> script will be executed before
the default build rules are done. It is recommended that you
use <filename>Makefile</filename> targets if the actions are
simple enough, because it will be easier for someone to figure
out what kind of non-default action the port requires.</para>
<para>The default actions are done by the
<filename>bsd.port.mk</filename> targets <maketarget>do-&lt;something&gt;</maketarget>. For example, the
commands to extract a port are in the target <maketarget>do-extract</maketarget>. If you are not happy with
the default target, you can fix it by redefining the
<maketarget>do-&lt;something&gt;</maketarget> target in
your Makefile.</para>
<note>
<para>The `main' targets (e.g., <maketarget>extract</maketarget>, <maketarget>configure</maketarget>, etc.) do nothing more than
make sure all the stages up to that one is completed and
call the real targets or scripts, and they are not intended
to be changed. If you want to fix the extraction, fix
<maketarget>do-extract</maketarget>, but never ever
touch <maketarget>extract</maketarget>!</para>
</note>
<para>Now that you understand what goes on when the user types
<command>make</command>, let us go through the
recommended steps to create the perfect port.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Getting the original sources</title>
<para>Get the original sources (normally) as a compressed
tarball (<filename>&lt;foo&gt;.tar.gz</filename> or
<filename>&lt;foo&gt;.tar.Z</filename>) and copy it into
<makevar>&#36;{DISTDIR}</makevar>. Always use
<emphasis>mainstream</emphasis> sources when and where you
can.</para>
<para>If you cannot find a ftp/http site that is well-connected
to the net, or can only find sites that have irritatingly
non-standard formats, we can `house' it ourselves by putting
it on
<informalexample>
<screen>ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/distfiles/LOCAL_PORTS/</screen>
</informalexample> as the last resort. Please refer to this
location as <makevar>&#36;{MASTER_SITE_LOCAL}</makevar>. Send mail to
the &a.ports;if you are not sure what to do.</para>
<para>If your port requires some additional `patches' that are
available on the Internet, fetch them too and put them in
<makevar>&#36;{DISTDIR}</makevar>. Do not worry if
they come from site other than where you got the main source
tarball, we have a way to handle these situations (see the
description of <xref linkend="porting-patchfiles"
remap="&#36;{PATCHFILES}"> below).</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Modifying the port</title>
<para>Unpack a copy of the tarball in a private directory and
make whatever changes are necessary to get the port to compile
properly under the current version of FreeBSD. Keep
<emphasis>careful track</emphasis> of everything you do, as
you will be automating the process shortly. Everything,
including the deletion, addition or modification of files
should be doable using an automated script or patch file when
your port is finished.</para>
<para>If your port requires significant user
interaction/customization to compile or install, you should
take a look at one of Larry Wall's classic Configure scripts
and perhaps do something similar yourself. The goal of the
new ports collection is to make each port as `plug-and-play'
as possible for the end-user while using a minimum of disk
space.</para>
<note>
<para>Unless explicitly stated, patch files, scripts, and
other files you have created and contributed to the FreeBSD
ports collection are assumed to be covered by the standard
BSD copyright conditions.</para>
</note>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Patching</title>
<para>In the preparation of the port, files that have been added
or changed can be picked up with a recursive diff for later
feeding to patch. Each set of patches you wish to apply
should be collected into a file named
<filename>patch-&lt;xx&gt;</filename> where
<filename>&lt;xx&gt;</filename> denotes the sequence in which
the patches will be applied -- these are done in
<emphasis>alphabetical order</emphasis>, thus <emphasis
remap=tt>aa</emphasis> first, <emphasis
remap=tt>ab</emphasis> second and so on. These files
should be stored in <makevar>&#36;{PATCHDIR}</makevar>, from where they will be
automatically applied. All patches should be relative to
<makevar>&#36;{WRKSRC}</makevar> (generally the
directory your port's tarball unpacks itself into, that being
where the build is done). To make fixes and upgrades easier
you should avoid having more than one patch fix the same file
(e.g., patch-aa and patch-ab both changing <makevar>&#36;{WRKSRC}</makevar>/foobar.c).</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Configuring</title>
<para>Include any additional customization commands to your
<filename>configure</filename> script and save it in the
<filename>scripts</filename> subdirectory. As mentioned
above, you can also do this as <filename>Makefile</filename>
targets and/or scripts with the name
<filename>pre-configure</filename> or
<filename>post-configure</filename>.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Handling user input</title>
<para>If your port requires user input to build, configure or
install, then set <symbol>IS_INTERACTIVE</symbol> in your
Makefile. This will allow `overnight builds' to skip your port
if the user sets the variable <envar>BATCH</envar> in his
environment (and if the user sets the variable
<envar>INTERACTIVE</envar>, then <emphasis>only</emphasis>
those ports requiring interaction are built).</para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Configuring the Makefile</title>
<para>Configuring the Makefile is pretty simple, and again we
suggest that you look at existing examples before starting.
Also, there is a <xref linkend="porting-samplem" remap="sample
Makefile"> in this handbook, so take a look and please follow
the ordering of variables and sections in that template to make
your port easier for others to read.</para>
<para>Now, consider the following problems in sequence as you
design your new Makefile:</para>
<sect4>
<title>The original source</title>
<para>Does it live in <makevar>&#36;{DISTDIR}</makevar> as a standard gzip'd
tarball? If so, you can go on to the next step. If not, you
should look at overriding any of the <makevar>&#36;{EXTRACT_CMD}</makevar>, <makevar>&#36;{EXTRACT_BEFORE_ARGS}</makevar>, <makevar>&#36;{EXTRACT_AFTER_ARGS}</makevar>, <makevar>&#36;{EXTRACT_SUFX}</makevar>, or <makevar>&#36;{DISTFILES}</makevar> variables, depending on
how alien a format your port's distribution file is. (The
most common case is <literal>EXTRACT_SUFX=.tar.Z</literal>,
when the tarball is condensed by regular compress, not
gzip.)</para>
<para>In the worst case, you can simply create your own
<maketarget>do-extract</maketarget> target to override
the default, though this should be rarely, if ever,
necessary.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>DISTNAME</title>
<para>You should set <makevar>&#36;{DISTNAME}</makevar> to be the base name of
your port. The default rules expect the distribution file
list (<makevar>&#36;{DISTFILES}</makevar>) to be
named <makevar>&#36;{DISTNAME}&#36;{EXTRACT_SUFX}</makevar> by
default which, if it is a normal tarball, is going to be
something like:
<informalexample>
<screen> foozolix-1.0.tar.gz</screen>
</informalexample> for a setting of
<literal>DISTNAME=foozolix-1.0</literal>.</para>
<para>The default rules also expect the tarball(s) to extract
into a subdirectory called
<filename>work/&#36;{DISTNAME}</filename>, e.g.
<informalexample>
<screen> work/foozolix-1.0/</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>All this behavior can be overridden, of course, it simply
represents the most common time-saving defaults. For a port
requiring multiple distribution files, simply set <makevar>&#36;{DISTFILES}</makevar> explicitly. If only a
subset of <makevar>&#36;{DISTFILES}</makevar> are
actual extractable archives, then set them up in <makevar>&#36;{EXTRACT_ONLY}</makevar>, which will override
the <makevar>&#36;{DISTFILES}</makevar> list when
it comes to extraction, and the rest will be just left in
<makevar>&#36;{DISTDIR}</makevar> for later
use.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>CATEGORIES</title>
<para>When a package is created, it is put under
<filename>/usr/ports/packages/All</filename> and links are
made from one or more subdirectories of
<filename>/usr/ports/packages</filename>. The names of these
subdirectories are specified by the variable <makevar>&#36;{CATEGORIES}</makevar>. It is intended to
make life easier for the user when he is wading through the
pile of packages on the ftp site or the CD-ROM. Please take a
look at the existing categories (you can find them in <ulink
URL="http://www.freebsd.org/ports/">the ports
page</ulink>) and pick the ones that are suitable for your
port. If your port truly belongs to something that is
different from all the existing ones, you can even create a
new category name.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>MASTER_SITES</title>
<para>Record the directory part of the ftp/http-URL pointing at
the original tarball in <makevar>&#36;{MASTER_SITES}</makevar>. Do not forget the
trailing slash (<filename>/</filename>)!</para>
<para>The make macros will try to use this specification for
grabbing the distribution file with <makevar>&#36;{FETCH}</makevar> if they cannot find it
already on the system.</para>
<para>It is recommended that you put multiple sites on this
list, preferably from different continents. This will
safeguard against wide-area network problems, and we are even
planning to add support for automatically determining the
closest master site and fetching from there!</para>
<para>If the original tarball is part of one of the following
popular archives: X-contrib, GNU, Perl CPAN, TeX CTAN, or
Linux Sunsite, you refer to those sites in an easy compact
form using MASTER_SITE_XCONTRIB, MASTER_SITE_GNU,
MASTER_SITE_PERL_CPAN, MASTER_SITE_TEX_CTAN, and
MASTER_SITE_SUNSITE. Simply set MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR to the
path with in the archive. Here is an example:
<informalexample>
<screen>MASTER_SITES= ${MASTER_SITE_XCONTRIB}
MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR= applications</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>The user can also set the MASTER_SITE_* variables in
<filename>/etc/make.conf</filename> to override our choices,
and use their favorite mirrors of these popular archives
instead.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4
id="porting-patchfiles">
<title>PATCHFILES</title>
<para>If your port requires some additional patches that are
available by ftp or http, set <makevar>&#36;{PATCHFILES}</makevar> to the names of the
files and <makevar>&#36;{PATCH_SITES}</makevar> to
the URL of the directory that contains them (the format is the
same as <makevar>&#36;{MASTER_SITES}</makevar>).</para>
<para>If the patch is not relative to the top of the source tree
(i.e., <makevar>&#36;{WKRSRC}</makevar>) because it
contains some extra pathnames, set <makevar>&#36;{PATCH_DIST_STRIP}</makevar> accordingly.
For instance, if all the pathnames in the patch has an extra
<filename>foozolix-1.0/</filename> in front of the
filenames, then set
<literal>PATCH_DIST_STRIP=-p1</literal>.</para>
<para>Do not worry if the patches are compressed, they will be
decompressed automatically if the filenames end with
<filename>.gz</filename> or
<filename>.Z</filename>.</para>
<para>If the patch is distributed with some other files, such as
documentation, in a gzip'd tarball, you can't just use
<makevar>&#36;{PATCHFILES}</makevar>. If that is
the case, add the name and the location of the patch tarball
to <makevar>&#36;{DISTFILES}</makevar> and
<makevar>&#36;{MASTER_SITES}</makevar>. Then, from
the <maketarget>pre-patch</maketarget> target, apply the
patch either by running the patch command from there, or
copying the patch file into the <makevar>&#36;{PATCHDIR}</makevar> directory and calling it
<filename>patch-&lt;xx&gt;</filename>.</para>
<note>
<para>Note the tarball will have been extracted alongside the
regular source by then, so there is no need to explicitly
extract it if it is a regular gzip'd or compress'd tarball.
If you do the latter, take extra care not to overwrite
something that already exists in that directory. Also do
not forget to add a command to remove the copied patch in
the <maketarget>pre-clean</maketarget> target.</para>
</note>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>MAINTAINER</title>
<para>Set your mail-address here. Please. <emphasis
remap=tt>:)</emphasis></para>
<para>For detailed description of the responsibility of
maintainers, refer to <xref linkend="policies-maintainer"
remap="MAINTAINER
on Makefiles"> section.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Dependencies</title>
<para>Many ports depend on other ports. There are five
variables that you can use to ensure that all the required
bits will be on the user's machine.</para>
<sect5>
<title>LIB_DEPENDS</title>
<para>This variable specifies the shared libraries this port
depends on. It is a list of <emphasis
remap=tt>lib:dir</emphasis> pairs where
<filename>lib</filename> is the name of the shared library,
and <filename>dir</filename> is the directory in which to
find it in case it is not available. For example,
<informalexample>
<screen>LIB_DEPENDS=
jpeg\\.6\\.:${PORTSDIR}/graphics/jpeg</screen>
</informalexample> will check for a shared jpeg library with
major version 6, and descend into the
<filename>graphics/jpeg</filename> subdirectory of your
ports tree to build and install it if it is not
found.</para>
<note>
<para>The <filename>lib</filename> part is just an argument
given to <command>ldconfig -r | grep</command>, so
periods should be escaped by two backslashes like in the
example above.</para>
</note>
<para>The dependency is checked from within the <maketarget>extract</maketarget> target. Also, the name of the
dependency is put in to the package so that
<symbol>pkg_add</symbol> will automatically install it if it
is not on the user's system.</para>
</sect5>
<sect5>
<title>RUN_DEPENDS</title>
<para>This variable specifies executables or files this port
depends on during run-time. It is a list of <emphasis
remap=tt>path:dir</emphasis> pairs where
<filename>path</filename> is the name of the executable or
file, and <filename>dir</filename> is the directory in which
to find it in case it is not available. If
<filename>path</filename> starts with a slash
(<filename>/</filename>), it is treated as a file and its
existence is tested with <command>test -e</command>;
otherwise, it is assumed to be an executable, and
<command>which -s</command> is used to determine if the
program exists in the user's search path.</para>
<para>For example,
<informalexample>
<screen>RUN_DEPENDS=
${PREFIX}/etc/innd:${PORTSDIR}/news/inn \
wish:${PORTSDIR}/x11/tk</screen>
</informalexample> will check if the file
<filename>/usr/local/etc/innd</filename> exists, and build
and install it from the <filename>news/inn</filename>
subdirectory of the ports tree if it is not found. It will
also see if an executable called <command>wish</command> is in your search path, and
descend into the <filename>x11/tk</filename> subdirectory of
your ports tree to build and install it if it is not
found.</para>
<note>
<para>In this case, <command>innd</command> is actually an
executable; if an executable is in a place that is not
expected to be in a normal user's search path, you should
use the full pathname.</para>
</note>
<para>The dependency is checked from within the <maketarget>install</maketarget> target. Also, the name of the
dependency is put in to the package so that
<symbol>pkg_add</symbol> will automatically install it if it
is not on the user's system.</para>
</sect5>
<sect5>
<title>BUILD_DEPENDS</title>
<para>This variable specifies executables or files this port
requires to build. Like <symbol>RUN_DEPENDS</symbol>, it is
a list of <emphasis remap=tt>path:dir</emphasis> pairs.
For example,
<informalexample>
<screen>BUILD_DEPENDS=
unzip:${PORTSDIR}/archivers/unzip</screen>
</informalexample> will check for an executable called
<command>unzip</command>, and descend into the
<filename>archivers/unzip</filename> subdirectory of your
ports tree to build and install it if it is not
found.</para>
<note>
<para>`build' here means everything from extracting to
compilation. The dependency is checked from within the
<maketarget>extract</maketarget> target.</para>
</note>
</sect5>
<sect5>
<title>FETCH_DEPENDS</title>
<para>This variable specifies executables or files this port
requires to fetch. Like the previous two, it is a list of
<emphasis remap=tt>path:dir</emphasis> pairs. For
example,
<informalexample>
<screen>FETCH_DEPENDS=
ncftp2:${PORTSDIR}/net/ncftp2</screen>
</informalexample> will check for an executable called
<command>ncftp2</command>, and descend into the
<filename>net/ncftp2</filename> subdirectory of your ports
tree to build and install it if it is not found.</para>
<para>The dependency is checked from within the <maketarget>fetch</maketarget> target.</para>
</sect5>
<sect5>
<title>DEPENDS</title>
<para>If there is a dependency that does not fall into either
of the above four categories, or your port requires to have
the source of the other port extracted (i.e., having them
installed is not enough), then use this variable. This is
just a list of directories, as there is nothing to check,
unlike the previous four.</para>
</sect5>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Building mechanisms</title>
<para>If your package uses GNU <command>make</command>, set
<literal>USE_GMAKE=yes</literal>. If your package uses GNU
<command>configure</command>, set
<literal>GNU_CONFIGURE=yes</literal>. If you want to give
some extra arguments to GNU <command>configure</command> (other than the default
<literal>--prefix=&#36;{PREFIX}</literal>), set those extra
arguments in <makevar>&#36;{CONFIGURE_ARGS}</makevar>.</para>
<para>If your package is an X application that creates
<filename>Makefile</filename>s from
<filename>Imakefile</filename>s using <command>imake</command>, then set
<literal>USE_IMAKE=yes</literal>. This will cause the
configure stage to automatically do an <command>xmkmf
-a</command>. If the <option>-a</option> flag is a
problem for your port, set
<literal>XMKMF=xmkmf</literal>.</para>
<para>If your port's source <filename>Makefile</filename> has
something else than <maketarget>all</maketarget> as the
main build target, set <makevar>&#36;{ALL_TARGET}</makevar> accordingly. Same
goes for <maketarget>install</maketarget> and <makevar>&#36;{INSTALL_TARGET}</makevar>.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>NO_INSTALL_MANPAGES</title>
<para>If the port uses imake but does not understand the
<filename>install.man</filename> target,
<literal>NO_INSTALL_MANPAGES=yes</literal> should be set.
In addition, the author of the original port should be shot.
<emphasis remap=tt>:&gt;</emphasis></para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Ports that require Motif</title>
<para>There are many programs that require a Motif library
(available from several commercial vendors, while there is (at
least) one effort to create a free clone) to compile. Since it
is a popular toolkit and their licenses usually permit
redistribution of statically linked binaries, we have made
special provisions for handling ports that require Motif in a
way that we can easily compile binaries linked either
dynamically or statically.</para>
<sect4>
<title>REQUIRES_MOTIF</title>
<para>If your port requires Motif, define this variable in the
Makefile. This will prevent people who don't own a copy of
Motif from even attempting to build it.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>&#36;{MOTIFLIB}</title>
<para>This variable will be set by
<filename>bsd.port.mk</filename> to be the appropriate
reference to the Motif library. Please patch the source to
use this wherever the Motif library is referenced in the
Makefile or Imakefile.</para>
<para>There are two common cases:
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>If the port refers to the Motif library as
<option>-lXm</option> in its Makefile or Imakefile,
simply substitute <makevar>&#36;{MOTIFLIB}</makevar> for it.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If the port uses <literal>XmClientLibs</literal> in its Imakefile,
change it to <makevar>&#36;{MOTIFLIB}
&#36;{XTOOLLIB} &#36;{XLIB}</makevar>.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
<note>
<para><makevar>&#36;{MOTIFLIB}</makevar> (usually)
expands to <option>-L/usr/X11R6/lib -lXm</option> or
<filename>/usr/X11R6/lib/libXm.a</filename>, so there is
no need to add <option>-L</option> or
<option>-l</option> in front.</para>
</note>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Info files</title>
<para>The new version of texinfo (included in 2.2.2-RELEASE and
onwards) contains a utility called <command>install-info</command> to add and delete entries to
the <filename>dir</filename> file. If your port installs any
info documents, please follow these instructions so your
port/package will correctly update the user's
<filename>&#36;{PREFIX}/info/dir</filename> file. (Sorry for
the length of this section, but it is imperative to weave all
the info files together. If done correctly, it will produce a
<emphasis>beautiful</emphasis> listing, so please bear with me!
<emphasis remap=tt>:)</emphasis></para>
<para>First, this is what you (as a porter) need to know:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; install-info --help install-info [OPTION]...
[INFO-FILE [DIR-FILE]] Install INFO-FILE in the Info
directory file DIR-FILE. Options: --delete Delete
existing entries in INFO-FILE; don't insert any new entries.
: --entry=TEXT Insert TEXT as an Info directory entry.
: --section=SEC Put this file's entries in section SEC
of the directory. :</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<note>
<para>This program will not actually
<emphasis>install</emphasis> info files; it merely inserts or
deletes entries in the <filename>dir</filename> file.</para>
</note>
<para>Here's a seven-step procedure to convert ports to use
<command>install-info</command>. I will use
<filename>editors/emacs</filename> as an example.</para>
<para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Look at the texinfo sources and make a patch to insert
<email>@dircategory</email> and <email>@direntry</email>
statements to files that don't have them. This is part of
my patch:
<informalexample>
<screen>--- ./man/vip.texi.org Fri Jun 16 15:31:11
1995 +++ ./man/vip.texi Tue May 20 01:28:33 1997 @@
-2,6 +2,10 @@ @setfilename ../info/vip @settitle VIP
+@dircategory The Emacs editor and associated tools
+@direntry +* VIP: (vip). A VI-emulation
for Emacs. +@end direntry @iftex @finalout :</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>The format should be self-explanatory. Many authors
leave a <filename>dir</filename> file in the source tree
that contains all the entries you need, so look around
before you try to write your own. Also, make sure you
look into related ports and make the section names and
entry indentations consistent (we recommend that all entry
text start at the 4th tab stop).</para>
<note>
<para>Note that you can put only one info entry per file
because of a bug in <command>install-info
--delete</command> that deletes only the first entry
if you specify multiple entries in the
<email>@direntry</email> section.</para>
</note>
<para>You can give the <emphasis remap=tt>dir</emphasis>
entries to <command>install-info</command> as
arguments (<option>--section</option> and
<option>--entry</option>) instead of patching the texinfo
sources. I do not think this is a good idea for ports
because you need to duplicate the same information in
<emphasis>three</emphasis> places
(<filename>Makefile</filename> and
<email>@exec</email>/<email>@unexec</email> of
<filename>PLIST</filename>; see below). However, if you
have a Japanese (or other multibyte encoding) info files,
you will have to use the extra arguments to <command>install-info</command> because <command>makeinfo</command> can't handle those texinfo
sources. (See <filename>Makefile</filename> and
<filename>PLIST</filename> of
<filename>japanese/skk</filename> for examples on how to
do this).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Go back to the port directory and do a <command>make clean; make</command> and verify that
the info files are regenerated from the texinfo sources.
Since the texinfo sources are newer than the info files,
they should be rebuilt when you type <command>make</command>; but many
<filename>Makefile</filename>s don't include correct
dependencies for info files. In emacs' case, I had to
patch the main <filename>Makefile.in</filename> so it will
descend into the <filename>man</filename>
subdirectory to rebuild the info pages.
<informalexample>
<screen>--- ./Makefile.in.org Mon Aug 19 21:12:19
1996 +++ ./Makefile.in Tue Apr 15 00:15:28 1997 @@
-184,7 +184,7 @@ # Subdirectories to make recursively.
`lisp' is not included # because the compiled lisp
files are part of the distribution # and you cannot
remake them without installing Emacs first. -SUBDIR =
lib-src src +SUBDIR = lib-src src man # The makefiles
of the directories in $SUBDIR. SUBDIR_MAKEFILES =
lib-src/Makefile man/Makefile src/Makefile
oldXMenu/Makefile lwlib/Makefile ---
./man/Makefile.in.org Thu Jun 27 15:27:19 1996 +++
./man/Makefile.in Tue Apr 15 00:29:52 1997 @@
-66,6 +66,7 @@ ${srcdir}/gnu1.texi \
${srcdir}/glossary.texi +all: info info:
$(INFO_TARGETS) dvi: $(DVI_TARGETS)</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>The second hunk was necessary because the default
target in the <filename>man</filename> subdir is called
<maketarget>info</maketarget>, while the main
<filename>Makefile</filename> wants to call <maketarget>all</maketarget>. I also deleted the installation
of the <filename>info</filename> info file
because we already have one with the same name in
<filename>/usr/share/info</filename> (that patch is not
shown here).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If there is a place in the
<filename>Makefile</filename> that is installing the
<filename>dir</filename> file, delete it. Your
port may not be doing it. Also, remove any commands that
are otherwise mucking around with the
<filename>dir</filename> file.
<informalexample>
<screen>--- ./Makefile.in.org Mon Aug 19 21:12:19
1996 +++ ./Makefile.in Mon Apr 14 23:38:07 1997 @@
-368,14 +368,8 @@ if [ `(cd ${srcdir}/info &amp;&amp;
/bin/pwd)` != `(cd ${infodir} &amp;&amp; /bin/pwd)` ];
\ then \ (cd ${infodir}; \ - if [ -f dir ]; then
\ - if [ ! -f dir.old ]; then mv -f dir
dir.old; \ - else mv -f dir dir.bak; fi; \ -
fi; \ cd ${srcdir}/info ; \ - (cd $${thisdir};
${INSTALL_DATA} ${srcdir}/info/dir ${infodir}/dir); \
- (cd $${thisdir}; chmod a+r ${infodir}/dir);
\ for f in ccmode* cl* dired-x* ediff* emacs* forms*
gnus* info* message* mh-e* sc* vip*; do \ (cd
$${thisdir}; \ ${INSTALL_DATA} ${srcdir}/info/$$f
${infodir}/$$f; \ chmod a+r ${infodir}/$$f);
\</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>(This step is only necessary if you are modifying an
existing port.) Take a look at
<filename>pkg/PLIST</filename> and delete anything that is
trying to patch up <filename>info/dir</filename>. They
may be in <filename>pkg/INSTALL</filename> or some other
file, so search extensively.
<informalexample>
<screen>Index: pkg/PLIST
=================================================================== RCS file: /usr/cvs/ports/editors/emacs/pkg/PLIST,v retrieving revision 1.15 diff -u -r1.15 PLIST --- PLIST 1997/03/04 08:04:00 1.15 +++ PLIST 1997/04/15 06:32:12 @@ -15,9 +15,6 @@ man/man1/emacs.1.gz man/man1/etags.1.gz man/man1/ctags.1.gz -@unexec cp %D/info/dir %D/info/dir.bak -info/dir -@unexec cp %D/info/dir.bak %D/info/dir info/cl info/cl-1 info/cl-2</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Add a <maketarget>post-install</maketarget>
target to the <filename>Makefile</filename> to create a
<filename>dir</filename> file if it is not there. Also,
call <maketarget>install-info</maketarget> with the
installed info files.
<informalexample>
<screen>Index: Makefile
=================================================================== RCS file: /usr/cvs/ports/editors/emacs/Makefile,v retrieving revision 1.26 diff -u -r1.26 Makefile --- Makefile 1996/11/19 13:14:40 1.26 +++ Makefile 1997/05/20 10:25:09 1.28 @@ -20,5 +20,11 @@ post-install: .for file in emacs-19.34 emacsclient etags ctags b2m strip ${PREFIX}/bin/${file} .endfor + if [ ! -f ${PREFIX}/info/dir ]; then \ + ${SED} -ne '1,/Menu:/p' /usr/share/info/dir &gt; ${PREFIX}/info/dir; \ + fi +.for info in emacs vip viper forms gnus mh-e cl sc dired-x ediff ccmode + install-info ${PREFIX}/info/${info} ${PREFIX}/info/dir +.endfor .include &lt;bsd.port.mk&gt;</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Do not use anything other than
<filename>/usr/share/info/dir</filename> and the above
command to create a new info file. In fact, I'd add the
first three lines of the above patch to
<filename>bsd.port.mk</filename> if you (the porter)
wouldn't have to do it in <filename>PLIST</filename> by
yourself anyway.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Edit <filename>PLIST</filename> and add equivalent
<email>@exec</email> statements and also
<email>@unexec</email> for <symbol>pkg_delete</symbol>.
You do not need to delete <filename>info/dir</filename>
with <email>@unexec</email>.
<informalexample>
<screen>Index: pkg/PLIST
=================================================================== RCS file: /usr/cvs/ports/editors/emacs/pkg/PLIST,v retrieving revision 1.15 diff -u -r1.15 PLIST --- PLIST 1997/03/04 08:04:00 1.15 +++ PLIST 1997/05/20 10:25:12 1.17 @@ -16,7 +14,15 @@ man/man1/etags.1.gz man/man1/ctags.1.gz +@unexec install-info --delete %D/info/emacs %D/info/dir : +@unexec install-info --delete %D/info/ccmode %D/info/dir info/cl info/cl-1 @@ -87,6 +94,18 @@ info/viper-3 info/viper-4 +@exec [ -f %D/info/dir ] || sed -ne '1,/Menu:/p' /usr/share/info/dir &gt; %D/info/dir +@exec install-info %D/info/emacs %D/info/dir : +@exec install-info %D/info/ccmode %D/info/dir libexec/emacs/19.34/i386--freebsd/cvtmail libexec/emacs/19.34/i386--freebsd/digest-doc</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<note>
<para>The <emphasis remap=tt>@unexec install-info
--delete</emphasis> commands have to be listed before
the info files themselves so they can read the files.
Also, the <email>@exec install-info</email> commands
have to be after the info files and the
<email>@exec</email> command that creates the the
<filename>dir</filename> file.</para>
</note>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Test and admire your work. <emphasis
remap=tt>:)</emphasis> The sequence I recommend is:
<command>make package</command>,
<symbol>pkg_delete</symbol>, then
<symbol>pkg_add</symbol>. Check the <emphasis
remap=tt>dir</emphasis> file before and after each
step.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Licensing Problems</title>
<para>Some software packages have restrictive licenses or can be
in violation to the law (PKP's patent on public key crypto, ITAR
(export of crypto software) to name just two of them). What we
can do with them vary a lot, depending on the exact wordings of
the respective licenses.</para>
<note>
<para>It is your responsibility as a porter to read the
licensing terms of the software and make sure that the FreeBSD
project will not be held accountable of violating them by
redistributing the source or compiled binaries either via ftp
or CD-ROM. If in doubt, please contact the &a.ports;.</para>
</note>
<para>There are two variables you can set in the Makefile to
handle the situations that arise frequently:</para>
<para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>If the port has a `do not sell for profit' type of
license, set the variable <symbol>NO_CDROM</symbol>. We
will make sure such ports won't go into the CD-ROM come
release time. The distfile and package will still be
available via ftp.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If the resulting package needs to be built uniquely
for each site, or the resulting binary package can't be
distributed due to licensing; set the variable
<symbol>NO_PACKAGE</symbol>. We will make sure such
packages won't go on the ftp site, nor into the CD-ROM
come release time. The distfile will still be included on
both however.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If the port has legal restrictions on who can use it
(e.g., crypto stuff) or has a `no commercial use' license,
set the variable <acronym>RESTRICTED</acronym> to be the
string describing the reason why. For such ports, the
distfiles/packages will not be available even from our ftp
sites.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
<note>
<para>The GNU General Public License (GPL), both version 1
and 2, should not be a problem for ports.</para>
</note>
<note>
<para>If you are a committer, make sure you update the
<filename>ports/LEGAL</filename> file too.</para>
</note>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Upgrading</title>
<para>When you notice that a port is out of date compared to the
latest version from the original authors, first make sure you
have the latest port. You can find them in the
<filename>ports-current</filename> directory of the ftp mirror
sites.</para>
<para>The next step is to send a mail to the maintainer, if one is
listed in the port's Makefile. That person may already be
working on an upgrade, or have a reason to not upgrade the port
right now (because of, for example, stability problems of the
new version).</para>
<para>If the maintainer asks you to do the upgrade or there isn't
any such person to begin with, please make the upgrade and send
the recursive diff (either unified or context diff is fine, but
port committers appear to prefer unified diff more) of the new
and old ports directories to us (i.e., if your modified ports
directory is called <filename remap="tt">superedit</filename>
and the original as in our tree is
<filename>superedit.bak</filename>, then send us the result of
<emphasis remap=tt>diff -ruN superedit.bak
superedit</emphasis>). Please examine the output to make
sure all the changes make sense. The best way to send us the
diff is by including it to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>send-pr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>
(category `ports'). Please mention any added or deleted files
in the message, as they have to be explicitly specified to CVS
when doing a commit. If the diff is more than about 20KB, please
compress and uuencode it; otherwise, just include it in as is in
the PR.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Do's and Dont's</title>
<para>Here is a list of common do's and dont's that you encounter
during the porting process.</para>
<sect4>
<title>WRKDIR</title>
<para>Do not leave anything valuable lying around in the
<filename>work</filename> subdirectory, <command>make clean</command> will
<emphasis>nuke</emphasis> it completely! If you need
auxiliary files that are not scripts or patches, put them in
the <makevar>&#36;{FILESDIR}</makevar> subdirectory
(<filename>files</filename> by default) and use the
<maketarget>post-extract</maketarget> target to copy them
to the <filename>work</filename> subdirectory.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Package information</title>
<para>Do include package information, i.e.
<filename>COMMENT</filename>, <filename>DESCR</filename>, and
<filename>PLIST</filename>, in <filename
remap="tt">pkg</filename>.</para>
<note>
<para>Note that these files are not used only for packaging
anymore, and are <emphasis>mandatory</emphasis> now, even if
<makevar>&#36;{NO_PACKAGE}</makevar> is
set.</para>
</note>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Compress manpages, strip binaries</title>
<para>Do compress manpages and strip binaries. If the original
source already strips the binary, fine; otherwise, you can add
a <maketarget>post-install</maketarget> rule to do it
yourself. Here is an example:
<informalexample>
<screen> post-install: strip ${PREFIX}/bin/xdl</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Use the <emphasis remap=tt>file</emphasis> command on the
installed executable to check whether the binary is stripped
or not. If it does not say `not stripped', it is
stripped.</para>
<para>To automagically compress the manpages, use the MAN[1-9LN]
variables. They will check the variable
<acronym>NOMANCOMPRESS</acronym> that the user can set in
<filename>/etc/make.conf</filename> to disable man page
compression. Place them last in the section below the
<acronym>MAINTAINER</acronym> variable. Here is an example:
<informalexample>
<screen>MAN1= foo.1 bar.1 MAN5= foo.conf.5 MAN8=
baz.8</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<note>
<para>This is not usually necessary with ports that are X
applications and use Imake to build.</para>
</note>
<para>If your port anchors its man tree somewhere other than
<acronym>PREFIX</acronym>, you can use the
<acronym>MANPREFIX</acronym> to set it. Also, if only manpages
in certain section go in a non-standard place, such as many
Perl modules ports, you can set individual man paths using
<literal>MAN<replaceable>sect</replaceable>PREFIX</literal>
(where <emphasis>sect</emphasis> is one of 1-9, L or
N).</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>INSTALL_* macros</title>
<para>Do use the macros provided in
<filename>bsd.port.mk</filename> to ensure correct modes and
ownership of files in your own *-install targets. They
are:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><makevar>${INSTALL_PROGRAM}</makevar> is
a command to install binary executables.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><makevar>${INSTALL_SCRIPT}</makevar> is a
command to install executable scripts.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><makevar>${INSTALL_DATA}</makevar> is a
command to install sharable data.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><makevar>${INSTALL_MAN}</makevar> is a
command to install manpages and other documentation (it
doesn't compress anything).</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>These are basically the <command>install</command> command with all the appropriate
flags. See below for an example on how to use them.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title><filename>INSTALL</filename> package script</title>
<para>If your port needs execute commands when the binary
package is installed with pkg_add you can do with via the
<filename>pkg/INSTALL</filename> script. This script will
automatically be added to the package, and will be run twice
by pkg_add. The first time will as <emphasis
remap=tt>INSTALL ${PKGNAME} PRE-INSTALL</emphasis> and the
second time as <emphasis remap=tt>INSTALL ${PKGNAME}
POST-INSTALL</emphasis>. <emphasis
remap=tt>&#36;2</emphasis> can be tested to determine which
mode the script is being run in. The
<symbol>PKG_PREFIX</symbol> environmental variable will be
set to the package installation directory. See man
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>pkg_add</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> for additional
information.</para>
<note>
<para>This script is not run automatically if you install the
port with <command>make install</command>. If you are
depending on it being run, you will have to explicitly call
it on your port's <filename>Makefile</filename>.</para>
</note>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title><filename>REQ</filename> package script</title>
<para>If your port needs to determine if it should install or
not, you can create a <filename>pkg/REQ</filename>
<quote>requirements</quote> script. It will be invoked automatically at
installation/deinstallation time to determine whether or not
installation/deinstallation should proceed. See man
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>pkg_create</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> and man
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>pkg_add</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more information.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Install additional documentation</title>
<para>If your software has some documentation other than the
standard man and info pages that you think is useful for the
user, install it under
<filename>&#36;{PREFIX}/share/doc</filename>. This can be
done, like the previous item, in the <maketarget>post-install</maketarget> target.</para>
<para>Create a new directory for your port. The directory name
should reflect what the port is. This usually means <makevar>&#36;{PKGNAME}</makevar> minus the version part.
However, if you think the user might want different versions
of the port to be installed at the same time, you can use the
whole <makevar>&#36;{PKGNAME}</makevar>.</para>
<para>Make the installation dependent to the variable
<acronym>NOPORTDOCS</acronym> so that users can disable it in
<filename>/etc/make.conf</filename>, like this:
<informalexample>
<screen> post-install: .if !defined(NOPORTDOCS) ${MKDIR}
${PREFIX}/share/doc/xv ${INSTALL_MAN}
${WRKSRC}/docs/xvdocs.ps ${PREFIX}/share/doc/xv
.endif</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Do not forget to add them to
<filename>pkg/PLIST</filename> too! (Do not worry about
<acronym>NOPORTDOCS</acronym> here; there is currently no way
for the packages to read variables from
<filename>/etc/make.conf</filename>.)</para>
<para>If you need to display a message to the installer, you may
place the message in <filename>pkg/MESSAGE</filename>. This
capibility is often useful to display additional installation
steps to be taken after a pkg_add, or to display licensing
information.</para>
<note>
<para><filename>MESSAGE</filename> does not need to be added
to <filename>pkg/PLIST</filename>).</para>
</note>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>DIST_SUBDIR</title>
<para>Do not let your port clutter
<filename>/usr/ports/distfiles</filename>. If your port
requires a lot of files to be fetched, or contains a file that
has a name that might conflict with other ports (e.g.,
`Makefile'), set <makevar>&#36;{DIST_SUBDIR}</makevar> to the name of the
port (<makevar>&#36;{PKGNAME}</makevar> without the
version part should work fine). This will change <makevar>&#36;{DISTDIR}</makevar> from the default
<filename>/usr/ports/distfiles</filename> to
<filename>/usr/ports/distfiles/&#36;{DIST_SUBDIR}</filename>,
and in effect puts everything that is required for your port
into that subdirectory.</para>
<para>It will also look at the subdirectory with the same name
on the backup master site at
<filename>ftp.freebsd.org</filename>. (Setting <makevar>&#36;{DISTDIR}</makevar> explicitly in your
Makefile will not accomplish this, so please use <makevar>&#36;{DIST_SUBDIR}</makevar>.)</para>
<note>
<para>This does not affect the <makevar>&#36;{MASTER_SITES}</makevar> you define in your
Makefile.</para>
</note>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Feedback</title>
<para>Do send applicable changes/patches to the original
author/maintainer for inclusion in next release of the code.
This will only make your job that much easier for the next
release.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>RCS strings</title>
<para>Do not put RCS strings in patches. CVS will mangle them
when we put the files into the ports tree, and when we check
them out again, they will come out different and the patch
will fail. RCS strings are surrounded by dollar (<emphasis
remap=tt>&#36;</emphasis>) signs, and typically start with
<emphasis remap=tt>&#36;Id</emphasis> or <emphasis
remap=tt>&#36;RCS</emphasis>.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Recursive diff</title>
<para>Using the recurse (<option>-r</option>) option to
<command>diff</command> to generate patches is
fine, but please take a look at the resulting patches to make
sure you don't have any unnecessary junk in there. In
particular, diffs between two backup files, Makefiles when the
port uses Imake or GNU configure, etc., are unnecessary and
should be deleted. Also, if you had to delete a file, then you
can do it in the <maketarget>post-extract</maketarget>
target rather than as part of the patch. Once you are happy
with the resuling diff, please split it up into one source
file per patch file.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>PREFIX</title>
<para>Do try to make your port install relative to <makevar>&#36;{PREFIX}</makevar>. (The value of this
variable will be set to <makevar>&#36;{LOCALBASE}</makevar> (default
<filename>/usr/local</filename>), unless <makevar>&#36;{USE_IMAKE}</makevar> or <makevar>&#36;{USE_X11}</makevar> is set, in which case it
will be <makevar>&#36;{X11BASE}</makevar> (default
<filename>/usr/X11R6</filename>).)</para>
<para>Not hard-coding <filename>/usr/local</filename> or
<filename>/usr/X11R6</filename> anywhere in the source will
make the port much more flexible and able to cater to the
needs of other sites. For X ports that use imake, this is
automatic; otherwise, this can often be done by simply
replacing the occurrences of <filename>/usr/local</filename>
(or <filename>/usr/X11R6</filename> for X ports that do not
use imake) in the various scripts/Makefiles in the port to
read <makevar>&#36;{PREFIX}</makevar>, as this
variable is automatically passed down to every stage of the
build and install processes.</para>
<para>The variable <makevar>&#36;{PREFIX}</makevar>
can be reassigned in your Makefile or in the user's
environment. However, it is strongly discouraged for
individual ports to set this variable explicitly in the
Makefiles. (If your port is an X port but does not use imake,
set <literal>USE_X11=yes</literal>; this is quite different
from setting <literal>PREFIX=/usr/X11R6</literal>.)</para>
<para>Also, refer to programs/files from other ports with the
variables mentioned above, not explicit pathnames. For
instance, if your port requires a macro
<acronym>PAGER</acronym> to be the full pathname of <command>less</command>, use the compiler flag:
<literallayout>-DPAGER=\"&#36;{PREFIX}/bin/less\"</literallayout> or <literallayout>-DPAGER=\"&#36;{LOCALBASE}/bin/less\"</literallayout> if this is an X port, instead of <literallayout>-DPAGER=\"/usr/local/bin/less\".</literallayout> This way it will have a better chance of working if the system administrator has moved the whole `/usr/local' tree somewhere else.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>Subdirectories</title>
<para>Try to let the port put things in the right subdirectories
of <makevar>&#36;{PREFIX}</makevar>. Some ports
lump everything and put it in the subdirectory with the port's
name, which is incorrect. Also, many ports put everything
except binaries, header files and manual pages in the a
subdirectory of <filename>lib</filename>, which does not
bode well with the BSD paradigm. Many of the files should be
moved to one of the following: <filename>etc</filename>
(setup/configuration files), <filename>libexec</filename>
(executables started internally), <filename>sbin</filename>
(executables for superusers/managers),
<filename>info</filename> (documentation for info browser)
or <filename>share</filename> (architecture independent
files). See man <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hier</refentrytitle><manvolnum>7</manvolnum></citerefentry> for
details, the rule governing <filename>/usr</filename> pretty
much applies to <filename>/usr/local</filename> too. The
exception are ports dealing with USENET `news'. They may use
<filename>&#36;{PREFIX}/news</filename> as a destination for
their files.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>ldconfig</title>
<para>If your port installs a shared library, add a <maketarget>post-install</maketarget> target to your Makefile
that runs <command>/sbin/ldconfig -m</command> on
the directory where the new library is installed (usually
<filename>&#36;{PREFIX}/lib</filename>) to register it into
the shared library cache.</para>
<para>Also, add an <email>@exec</email> line to your
<filename>pkg/PLIST</filename> file so that a user who
installed the package can start using the shared library
immediately. This line should immediately follow the line
for the shared library itself, as in:
<informalexample>
<screen>lib/libtcl80.so.1.0 @exec /sbin/ldconfig -m
%D/lib</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Never, ever, <emphasis>ever</emphasis> add a line that
says <command>ldconfig</command> without any
arguments to your Makefile or pkg/PLIST. This will reset the
shared library cache to the contents of
<filename>/usr/lib</filename> only, and will royally screw up
the user's machine (<quote>Help, xinit does not run anymore after I
install this port!</quote>). Anybody who does this will be shot and
cut into 65,536 pieces by a rusty knife and have his liver
chopped out by a bunch of crows and will eternally rot to
death in the deepest bowels of hell (not necessarily in that
order)....</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>UIDs</title>
<para>If your port requires a certain user ID to be on the
installed system, let the <filename>pkg/INSTALL</filename>
script call <command>pw</command> to create it
automatically. Look at <filename>japanese/Wnn</filename> or
<filename>net/cvsup-mirror</filename> for examples. It is
customary to use UIDs in the upper 2-digit range (i.e., from
around 50 to 99) for this purpose.</para>
<para>Make sure you don't use a UID already used by the system
or other ports. This is the current list of UIDs between 50
and 99.</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>majordom:*:54:1024:Majordomo Pseudo
User:/usr/local/majordomo:/nonexistent cyrus:*:60:248:the
cyrus mail server:/nonexistent:/nonexistent
gnats:*:61:1:GNATS database
owner:/usr/local/share/gnats/gnats-db:/bin/sh
uucp:*:66:66:UUCP
pseudo-user:/var/spool/uucppublic:/usr/libexec/uucp/uucico
xten:*:67:67:X-10 daemon:/usr/local/xten:/nonexistent
pop:*:68:6:Post Office Owner:/nonexistent:/nonexistent
wnn:*:69:7:Wnn:/nonexistent:/nonexistent
ifmail:*:70:66:Ifmail user:/nonexistent:/nonexistent
pgsql:*:71:246:PostgreSQL
pseudo-user:/usr/local/pgsql:/bin/sh msql:*:80:249:mSQL-2
pseudo-user:/var/db/msqldb:/bin/sh</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Please send a notice to &a.ports; if you submit or commit
a port that allocates a new UID in this range so we can keep
this list up to date.</para>
</sect4>
<sect4>
<title>If you are stuck....</title>
<para>Do look at existing examples and the
<filename>bsd.port.mk</filename> file before asking us
questions! <emphasis remap=tt>;)</emphasis></para>
<para>Do ask us questions if you have any trouble! Do not just
beat your head against a wall! <emphasis
remap=tt>:)</emphasis></para>
</sect4>
</sect3>
<sect3
id="porting-samplem">
<title>A Sample <filename>Makefile</filename></title>
<para>Here is a sample <filename>Makefile</filename> that you can
use to create a new port. Make sure you remove all the extra
comments (ones between brackets)!</para>
<para>It is recommended that you follow this format (ordering of
variables, empty lines between sections, etc.). Not all of the
existing <filename>Makefile</filename>s are in this format
(mostly old ones), but we are trying to uniformize how they
look. This format is designed so that the most important
information is easy to locate.</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> [the header...just to make it easier for us to
identify the ports.] # New ports collection makefile for:
xdvi [the version required header should updated when
upgrading a port.] # Version required: pl18 [things
like "1.5alpha" are fine here too] [this is the date when
the first version of this Makefile was created. Never
change this when doing an update of the port.] # Date
created: 26 May 1995 [this is the person who
did the original port to FreeBSD, in particular, the person
who wrote the first version of this Makefile. Remember,
this should not be changed when upgrading the port later.] #
Whom: Satoshi Asami
&lt;asami@FreeBSD.ORG&gt; # # &#36;Id&#36; [ ^^^^ This will
be automatically replaced with RCS ID string by CVS when it
is committed to our repository.] # [section to describe the
port itself and the master site - DISTNAME is always first,
followed by PKGNAME (if necessary), CATEGORIES, and then
MASTER_SITES, which can be followed by MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR.
After those, one of EXTRACT_SUFX or DISTFILES can be
specified too.] DISTNAME= xdvi PKGNAME= xdvi-pl18
CATEGORIES= print [do not forget the trailing slash ("/")!
if you aren't using MASTER_SITE_* macros] MASTER_SITES=
${MASTER_SITE_XCONTRIB} MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR= applications
[set this if the source is not in the standard ".tar.gz"
form] EXTRACT_SUFX= .tar.Z [section for distributed
patches -- can be empty] PATCH_SITES=
ftp://ftp.sra.co.jp/pub/X11/japanese/ PATCHFILES=
xdvi-18.patch1.gz xdvi-18.patch2.gz [maintainer;
*mandatory*! This is the person (preferably with commit
privileges) who a user can contact for questions and bug
reports - this person should be the porter or someone who
can forward questions to the original porter reasonably
promptly. If you really do not want to have your address
here, set it to "ports@FreeBSD.ORG".] MAINTAINER=
asami@FreeBSD.ORG [dependencies -- can be empty]
RUN_DEPENDS= gs:${PORTSDIR}/print/ghostscript LIB_DEPENDS=
Xpm\\.4\\.:${PORTSDIR}/graphics/xpm [this section is for
other standard bsd.port.mk variables that do not belong to
any of the above] [If it asks questions during configure,
build, install...] IS_INTERACTIVE= yes [If it extracts to
a directory other than ${DISTNAME}...] WRKSRC=
${WRKDIR}/xdvi-new [If the distributed patches were not made
relative to ${WRKSRC}, you may need to tweak this]
PATCH_DIST_STRIP= -p1 [If it requires a "configure"
script generated by GNU autoconf to be run] GNU_CONFIGURE=
yes [If it requires GNU make, not /usr/bin/make, to
build...] USE_GMAKE= yes [If it is an X application and
requires "xmkmf -a" to be run...] USE_IMAKE= yes [et
cetera.] [non-standard variables to be used in the rules
below] MY_FAVORITE_RESPONSE= "yeah, right" [then the
special rules, in the order they are called] pre-fetch: i go
fetch something, yeah post-patch: i need to do something
after patch, great pre-install: and then some more stuff
before installing, wow [and then the epilogue] .include
&lt;bsd.port.mk&gt;</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Package Names</title>
<para>The following are the conventions you should follow in
naming your packages. This is to have our package directory
easy to scan, as there are already lots and lots of packages and
users are going to turn away if they hurt their eyes!</para>
<para>The package name should look like</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>[&lt;language&gt;-]&lt;name&gt;[[-]&lt;compiled.specifics&gt;]-&lt;version.string.numbers&gt;;</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>If your <makevar>&#36;{DISTNAME}</makevar>
doesn't look like that, set <makevar>&#36;{PKGNAME}</makevar> to something in that
format.</para>
<para>
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>FreeBSD strives to support the native language of its
users. The `&lt;language&gt;' part should be a two letter
abbreviation of the natural language defined by ISO-639 if
the port is specific to a certain language. Examples are
`ja' for Japanese, `ru' for Russian, `vi' for Vietnamese,
`zh' for Chinese, `ko' for Korean and `de' for German.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>The <emphasis remap=tt>&lt;name&gt;</emphasis> part
should be all lowercases, except for a really large
package (with lots of programs in it). Things like
XFree86 (yes there really is a package of it, check it
out) and ImageMagick fall into this category. Otherwise,
convert the name (or at least the first letter) to
lowercase. If the software in question really is called
that way, you can have numbers, hyphens and underscores in
the name too (like `kinput2').
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If the port can be built with different hardcoded
defaults (usually specified as environment variables or on
the <command>make</command> command line), the
`&lt;compiled.specifics&gt;' part should state the
compiled-in defaults (the hyphen is optional). Examples
are papersize and font units.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>The version string should be a period-separated list
of integers and single lowercase alphabetics. The only
exception is the string `pl' (meaning `patchlevel'), which
can be used <emphasis>only</emphasis> when there are no
major and minor version numbers in the software.</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
<para>Here are some (real) examples on how to convert a <makevar>&#36;{DISTNAME}</makevar> into a suitable <makevar>&#36;{PKGNAME}</makevar>:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>DISTNAME PKGNAME Reason
mule-2.2.2 mule-2.2.2 no prob at all
XFree86-3.1.2 XFree86-3.1.2 ditto EmiClock-1.0.2
emiclock-1.0.2 no uppercase names for single
programs gmod1.4 gmod-1.4 need
hyphen after `&lt;name&gt;' xmris.4.02 xmris-4.02
ditto rdist-1.3alpha rdist-1.3a no strings
like `alpha' allowed es-0.9-beta1 es-0.9b1
ditto v3.3beta021.src tiff-3.3 what the heck
was that anyway? ;) tvtwm tvtwm-pl11
version string always required piewm piewm-1.0
ditto xvgr-2.10pl1 xvgr-2.10.1 `pl' allowed
only when no maj/minor numbers gawk-2.15.6 ja-gawk-2.15.6
Japanese language version psutils-1.13
psutils-letter-1.13 papersize hardcoded at package build
time pkfonts pkfonts300-1.0 package for
300dpi fonts</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>If there is absolutely no trace of version information in
the original source and it is unlikely that the original author
will ever release another version, just set the version string
to `1.0' (like the piewm example above). Otherwise, ask the
original author or use the date string (`yy.mm.dd') as the
version.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>That is It, Folks!</title>
<para>Boy, this sure was a long tutorial, wasn't it? Thanks for
following us to here, really.</para>
<para>Well, now that you know how to do a port, let us go at it
and convert everything in the world into ports! That is the
easiest way to start contributing to the FreeBSD Project!
<emphasis remap=tt>:)</emphasis>
</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Money, Hardware or Internet access</title>
<para>We are always very happy to accept donations to further the
cause of the FreeBSD Project and, in a volunteer effort like ours,
a little can go a long way! Donations of hardware are also very
important to expanding our list of supported peripherals since we
generally lack the funds to buy such items ourselves. </para>
<sect3>
<title>Donating funds</title>
<para>While the FreeBSD Project is not a 501(C3) (non-profit)
corporation and hence cannot offer special tax incentives for
any donations made, any such donations will be gratefully
accepted on behalf of the project by FreeBSD, Inc.</para>
<para>FreeBSD, Inc. was founded in early 1995 by &a.jkh; and
&a.davidg; with the goal of furthering the aims of the FreeBSD
Project and giving it a minimal corporate presence. Any and all
funds donated (as well as any profits that may eventually be
realized by FreeBSD, Inc.) will be used exclusively to further
the project's goals. </para>
<para>Please make any checks payable to FreeBSD, Inc., sent in
care of the following address:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>FreeBSD, Inc. c/o Jordan Hubbard 4041 Pike Lane, suite
#D. Concord CA, 94520 [temporarily using the Walnut Creek
CDROM address until a PO box can be opened]</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Wire transfers may also be sent directly to:</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>Bank Of America Concord Main Office P.O. Box 37176
San Francisco CA, 94137-5176 Routing #: 121-000-358 Account
#: 01411-07441 (FreeBSD, Inc.)</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Any correspondence related to donations should be sent to
<ulink URL="mailto:jkh@FreeBSD.org">Jordan Hubbard</ulink>,
either via email or to the FreeBSD, Inc. postal address given
above.</para>
<para>If you do not wish to be listed in our <xref
linkend="donors" remap="donors"> section, please specify this
when making your donation. Thanks!</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Donating hardware</title>
<para>Donations of hardware in any of the 3 following categories
are also gladly accepted by the FreeBSD Project:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>General purpose hardware such as disk drives, memory
or complete systems should be sent to the FreeBSD, Inc.
address listed in the <emphasis>donating funds</emphasis>
section.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Hardware for which ongoing compliance testing is
desired. We are currently trying to put together a testing
lab of all components that FreeBSD supports so that proper
regression testing can be done with each new release. We
are still lacking many important pieces (network cards,
motherboards, etc) and if you would like to make such a
donation, please contact &a.davidg; for information on
which items are still required.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Hardware currently unsupported by FreeBSD for which
you would like to see such support added. Please contact
the &a.core; before sending such items as we will need to
find a developer willing to take on the task before we can
accept delivery of new hardware. </para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Donating Internet access</title>
<para>We can always use new mirror sites for FTP, WWW or cvsup. If
you would like to be such a mirror, please contact <ulink
URL="mailto:admin@FreeBSD.ORG">the FreeBSD project
administrators</ulink> for more information.</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="donors">
<title>Donors Gallery</title>
<para>The FreeBSD Project is indebted to the following donors and
would like to publically thank them here!</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Contributors to the central server
project:</emphasis>
</para>
<para>The following individuals and businesses made it possible
for the FreeBSD Project to build a new central server machine
to eventually replace
<filename>freefall.freebsd.org</filename> by donating the
following items:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink URL="mailto:mbarkah@freebsd.org">Ade
Barkah</ulink> and his employer, <ulink
URL="http://www.hemi.com">Hemisphere Online</ulink>,
donated a <emphasis remap=bf>Pentium Pro (P6) 200Mhz
CPU</emphasis>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink URL="http://www.asacomputers.com">ASA
Computers</ulink> donated a <emphasis remap=bf>Tyan
1662 motherboard</emphasis>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink URL="mailto:joe@via.net">Joe McGuckin</ulink>
of <ulink URL="http://www.via.net">ViaNet
Communications</ulink> donated a <emphasis
remap=bf>Kingston ethernet controller.</emphasis>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink URL="mailto:jack@diamond.xtalwind.net">Jack
O'Neill</ulink> donated an <emphasis remap=bf>NCR
53C875 SCSI controller card</emphasis>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink URL="mailto:ulf@Alameda.net">Ulf
Zimmermann</ulink> of <ulink
URL="http://www.Alameda.net">Alameda Networks</ulink>
donated <emphasis remap=bf>128MB of memory</emphasis>, a
<emphasis remap=bf>4 Gb disk drive and the
case.</emphasis></para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Direct funding:</emphasis>
</para>
<para>The following individuals and businesses have generously
contributed direct funding to the project:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="mailto:ANDRSN@HOOVER.STANFORD.EDU">Annelise
Anderson</ulink>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink URL="mailto:dillon@best.net">Matt
Dillon</ulink>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink URL="http://www.epilogue.com/">Epilogue
Technology Corporation</ulink>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Sean Eric Fagan
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink URL="mailto:gmarco@masternet.it">Gianmarco
Giovannelli</ulink>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink URL="mailto:joeg@truenorth.org">Josef C.
Grosch</ulink>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink URL="mailto:chuckr@freebsd.org">Chuck
Robey</ulink>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink URL="mailto:ken@stox.sa.enteract.com">Kenneth
P. Stox</ulink> of <ulink
URL="http://www.imagescape.com">Imaginary Landscape,
LLC.</ulink>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink URL="mailto:dk@dog.farm.org">Dmitry S.
Kohmanyuk</ulink>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink URL="http://www.cdrom.co.jp/">Laser5</ulink>
of Japan (a portion of the profits from sales of their
various FreeBSD CD-ROMs.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink URL="http://www.mmjp.or.jp/fuki/">Fuki
Shuppan Publishing Co.</ulink> donated a portion of
their profits from <emphasis>Hajimete no
FreeBSD</emphasis> (FreeBSD, Getting started) to the
FreeBSD and XFree86 projects.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink URL="http://www.ascii.co.jp/">ASCII
Corp.</ulink> donated a portion of their profits from
several FreeBSD-related books to the FreeBSD
project.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink URL="http://www.yokogawa.co.jp/">Yokogawa
Electric Corp</ulink> has generously donated
significant funding to the FreeBSD project.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="http://www.buffnet.net/">BuffNET</ulink></para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Hardware contributors:</emphasis>
</para>
<para>The following individuals and businesses have generously
contributed hardware for testing and device driver
development/support:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Walnut Creek CDROM for providing the Pentium P5-90
and 486/DX2-66 EISA/VL systems that are being used for
our development work, to say nothing of the network
access and other donations of hardware resources.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>TRW Financial Systems, Inc. provided 130 PCs, three
68 GB fileservers, twelve Ethernets, two routers and an
ATM switch for debugging the diskless code. They also
keep a couple of FreeBSD hackers alive and busy.
Thanks!
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Dermot McDonnell donated the Toshiba XM3401B CDROM
drive currently used in freefall.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.chuck; contributed his floppy tape streamer for
experimental work.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Larry Altneu <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:larry@ALR.COM">&lt;larry@ALR.COM&gt;</ulink></emphasis>, and &a.wilko;, provided Wangtek and Archive QIC-02 tape drives in order to improve the <emphasis remap=tt>wt</emphasis> driver.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Ernst Winter <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:ewinter@lobo.muc.de">&lt;ewinter@lobo.muc.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis> contributed a 2.88 MB floppy drive to the project. This will hopefully increase the pressure for rewriting the floppy disk driver. ;-)
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink URL="http://www.tekram.com">Tekram
Technologies</ulink> sent one each of their DC-390,
DC-390U and DC-390F FAST and ULTRA SCSI host adapter
cards for regression testing of the NCR and AMD drivers
with their cards. They are also to be applauded for
making driver sources for free operating systems
available from their FTP server <ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.tekram.com/scsi/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.tekram.com/scsi/FreeBSD</ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink URL="mailto:lma@varesearch.com">Larry M.
Augustin</ulink> contributed not only a Symbios
Sym8751S SCSI card, but also a set of data books,
including one about the forthcoming Sym53c895 chip with
Ultra-2 and LVD support, and the latest programming
manual with information on how to safely use the
advanced features of the latest Symbios SCSI chips.
Thanks a lot!
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink URL="mailto:kuku@freebsd.org">Christoph
Kukulies</ulink> donated an FX120 12 speed Mitsumi
CDROM drive for IDE CDROM driver development.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Special contributors:</emphasis>
</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink URL="http://www.cdrom.com">Walnut Creek
CDROM</ulink> has donated almost more than we can say
(see the
<xref linkend="history" remap="history"> document for
more details). In particular, we would like to thank
them for the original hardware used for
<filename>freefall.FreeBSD.ORG</filename>, our primary
development machine, and for
<filename>thud.FreeBSD.ORG</filename>, a testing and
build box. We are also indebted to them for funding
various contributors over the years and providing us
with unrestricted use of their T1 connection to the
Internet.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>The <ulink
URL="http://www.interface-business.de">interface
business GmbH, Dresden</ulink> has been patiently
supporting &a.joerg; who has often preferred FreeBSD
work over paywork, and used to fall back to their (quite
expensive) EUnet Internet connection whenever his
private connection became too slow or flakey to work
with it...</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink URL="http://www.bsdi.com">Berkeley Software
Design, Inc.</ulink> has contributed their DOS
emulator code to the remaining BSD world, which is used
in the <emphasis>dosemu</emphasis> command.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Derived Software Contributors</title>
<para>This software was originally derived from William F. Jolitz's
386BSD release 0.1, though almost none of the original 386BSD
specific code remains. This software has been essentially
re-implemented from the 4.4BSD-Lite release provided by the Computer
Science Research Group (CSRG) at the University of California,
Berkeley and associated academic contributors.</para>
<para>There are also portions of NetBSD that have been integrated into
FreeBSD as well, and we would therefore like to thank all the
contributors to NetBSD for their work.</para>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="contrib-additional">
<title>Additional FreeBSD Contributors</title>
<para>(in alphabetical order by first name):</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>A JOSEPH KOSHY <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:koshy@india.hp.com">&lt;koshy@india.hp.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>ABURAYA Ryushirou <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:rewsirow@ff.iij4u.or.jp">&lt;rewsirow@ff.iij4u.or.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Ada T Lim <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:ada@bsd.org">&lt;ada@bsd.org&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Adam Glass <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:glass@postgres.berkeley.edu">&lt;glass@postgres.berkeley.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Adrian T. Filipi-Martin <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:atf3r@agate.cs.virginia.edu">&lt;atf3r@agate.cs.virginia.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Akito Fujita <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:fujita@zoo.ncl.omron.co.jp">&lt;fujita@zoo.ncl.omron.co.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Alain Kalker <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:A.C.P.M.Kalker@student.utwente.nl">&lt;A.C.P.M.Kalker@student.utwente.nl&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Alan Cox <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:alc@cs.rice.edu">&lt;alc@cs.rice.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Andreas Kohout <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:shanee@rabbit.augusta.de">&lt;shanee@rabbit.augusta.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Andreas Lohr <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:andreas@marvin.RoBIN.de">&lt;andreas@marvin.RoBIN.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Andrew Gordon <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:andrew.gordon@net-tel.co.uk">&lt;andrew.gordon@net-tel.co.uk&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Andrew Herbert <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:andrew@werple.apana.org.au">&lt;andrew@werple.apana.org.au&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Andrew McRae <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:amcrae@cisco.com">&lt;amcrae@cisco.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Andrew Moore <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:alm@FreeBSD.org">&lt;alm@FreeBSD.org&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Andrew Stevenson <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:andrew@ugh.net.au">&lt;andrew@ugh.net.au&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Andrew V. Stesin <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:stesin@elvisti.kiev.ua">&lt;stesin@elvisti.kiev.ua&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Andrey Zakhvatov <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:andy@icc.surw.chel.su">&lt;andy@icc.surw.chel.su&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Andy Whitcroft <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:andy@sarc.city.ac.uk">&lt;andy@sarc.city.ac.uk&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Angelo Turetta <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:ATuretta@stylo.it">&lt;ATuretta@stylo.it&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Anthony Yee-Hang Chan <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:yeehang@netcom.com">&lt;yeehang@netcom.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Ari Suutari <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:ari@suutari.iki.fi">&lt;ari@suutari.iki.fi&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Brent J. Nordquist <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:bjn@visi.com">&lt;bjn@visi.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Bernd Rosauer <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:br@schiele-ct.de">&lt;br@schiele-ct.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Bill Kish <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:kish@osf.org">&lt;kish@osf.org&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.wlloyd;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Bob Wilcox <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:bob@obiwan.uucp">&lt;bob@obiwan.uucp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Boyd Faulkner <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:faulkner@mpd.tandem.com">&lt;faulkner@mpd.tandem.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Brent J. Nordquist <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:bjn@visi.com">&lt;bjn@visi.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Brett Taylor <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:brett@peloton.physics.montana.edu">&lt;brett@peloton.physics.montana.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Brian Clapper <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:bmc@willscreek.com">&lt;bmc@willscreek.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Brian Handy <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:handy@lambic.space.lockheed.com">&lt;handy@lambic.space.lockheed.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Brian Tao <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:taob@risc.org">&lt;taob@risc.org&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Brion Moss <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:brion@queeg.com">&lt;brion@queeg.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Bruce Gingery <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:bgingery@gtcs.com">&lt;bgingery@gtcs.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Carey Jones <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:mcj@acquiesce.org">&lt;mcj@acquiesce.org&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Carl Fongheiser <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:cmf@netins.net">&lt;cmf@netins.net&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Charles Hannum <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:mycroft@ai.mit.edu">&lt;mycroft@ai.mit.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Charles Mott <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:cmott@srv.net">&lt;cmott@srv.net&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Chet Ramey <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:chet@odin.INS.CWRU.Edu">&lt;chet@odin.INS.CWRU.Edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Chris Dabrowski <emphasis remap=tt><ulink URL="mailto:
chris@vader.org">&lt;
chris@vader.org&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Chris G. Demetriou <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:cgd@postgres.berkeley.edu">&lt;cgd@postgres.berkeley.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Chris Shenton <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:cshenton@angst.it.hq.nasa.gov">&lt;cshenton@angst.it.hq.nasa.gov&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Chris Stenton <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:jacs@gnome.co.uk">&lt;jacs@gnome.co.uk&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Chris Timmons <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:skynyrd@opus.cts.cwu.edu">&lt;skynyrd@opus.cts.cwu.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Chris Torek <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:torek@ee.lbl.gov">&lt;torek@ee.lbl.gov&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Christian Gusenbauer <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:cg@fimp01.fim.uni-linz.ac.at">&lt;cg@fimp01.fim.uni-linz.ac.at&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Christian Haury <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:Christian.Haury@sagem.fr">&lt;Christian.Haury@sagem.fr&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Christoph Robitschko <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:chmr@edvz.tu-graz.ac.at">&lt;chmr@edvz.tu-graz.ac.at&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Choi Jun Ho <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:junker@jazz.snu.ac.kr">&lt;junker@jazz.snu.ac.kr&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Chuck Hein <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:chein@cisco.com">&lt;chein@cisco.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Conrad Sabatier <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:conrads@neosoft.com">&lt;conrads@neosoft.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Cornelis van der Laan <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:nils@guru.ims.uni-stuttgart.de">&lt;nils@guru.ims.uni-stuttgart.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Craig Struble <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:cstruble@vt.edu">&lt;cstruble@vt.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Cristian Ferretti <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:cfs@riemann.mat.puc.cl">&lt;cfs@riemann.mat.puc.cl&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Curt Mayer <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:curt@toad.com">&lt;curt@toad.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Dai Ishijima <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:ishijima@tri.pref.osaka.jp">&lt;ishijima@tri.pref.osaka.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Dan Cross <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:tenser@spitfire.ecsel.psu.edu">&lt;tenser@spitfire.ecsel.psu.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Daniel Baker <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:dbaker@crash.ops.neosoft.com">&lt;dbaker@crash.ops.neosoft.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Daniel M. Eischen <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:deischen@iworks.InterWorks.org">&lt;deischen@iworks.InterWorks.org&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Daniel O'Connor <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:doconnor@gsoft.com.au">&lt;doconnor@gsoft.com.au&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Danny J. Zerkel <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:dzerkel@feephi.phofarm.com">&lt;dzerkel@feephi.phofarm.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Dave Bodenstab <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:imdave@synet.net">&lt;imdave@synet.net&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Dave Burgess <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:burgess@hrd769.brooks.af.mil">&lt;burgess@hrd769.brooks.af.mil&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Dave Chapeskie <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:dchapes@zeus.leitch.com">&lt;dchapes@zeus.leitch.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Dave Edmondson <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:davided@sco.com">&lt;davided@sco.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Dave Rivers <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:rivers@ponds.uucp">&lt;rivers@ponds.uucp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>David A. Bader <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:dbader@umiacs.umd.edu">&lt;dbader@umiacs.umd.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>David Dawes <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:dawes@physics.su.OZ.AU">&lt;dawes@physics.su.OZ.AU&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>David Holloway <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:daveh@gwythaint.tamis.com">&lt;daveh@gwythaint.tamis.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>David Leonard <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:d@scry.dstc.edu.au">&lt;d@scry.dstc.edu.au&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Dean Huxley <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:dean@fsa.ca">&lt;dean@fsa.ca&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Dirk Froemberg <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:dirk@hal.in-berlin.de">&lt;dirk@hal.in-berlin.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Dmitrij Tejblum <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:dima@tejblum.dnttm.rssi.ru">&lt;dima@tejblum.dnttm.rssi.ru&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Dmitry Kohmanyuk <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:dk@farm.org">&lt;dk@farm.org&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.whiteside;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Don Yuniskis <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:dgy@rtd.com">&lt;dgy@rtd.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Donald Burr <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:d_burr@ix.netcom.com">&lt;d_burr@ix.netcom.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Doug Ambrisko <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:ambrisko@ambrisko.roble.com">&lt;ambrisko@ambrisko.roble.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Douglas Carmichael <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:dcarmich@mcs.com">&lt;dcarmich@mcs.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Eiji-usagi-MATSUmoto <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:usagi@ruby.club.or.jp">&lt;usagi@ruby.club.or.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>ELISA Font Project</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Eric A. Griff <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:eagriff@global2000.net">&lt;eagriff@global2000.net&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Eric Blood <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:eblood@cs.unr.edu">&lt;eblood@cs.unr.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Eric J. Chet <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:ejc@bazzle.com">&lt;ejc@bazzle.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Eric J. Schwertfeger <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:eric@cybernut.com">&lt;eric@cybernut.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Francis M J Hsieh <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:mjshieh@life.nthu.edu.tw">&lt;mjhsieh@life.nthu.edu.tw&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Frank Bartels <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:knarf@camelot.de">&lt;knarf@camelot.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Frank Chen Hsiung Chan <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:frankch@waru.life.nthu.edu.tw">&lt;frankch@waru.life.nthu.edu.tw&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Frank Maclachlan <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:fpm@crash.cts.com">&lt;fpm@crash.cts.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Frank Nobis <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:fn@trinity.radio-do.de">&lt;fn@trinity.radio-do.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>FUJIMOTO Kensaku <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:fujimoto@oscar.elec.waseda.ac.jp">&lt;fujimoto@oscar.elec.waseda.ac.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>FURUSAWA Kazuhisa <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:furusawa@com.cs.osakafu-u.ac.jp">&lt;furusawa@com.cs.osakafu-u.ac.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Gary A. Browning <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:gab10@griffcd.amdahl.com">&lt;gab10@griffcd.amdahl.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Gary Kline <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:kline@thought.org">&lt;kline@thought.org&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Gerard Roudier <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:groudier@club-internet.fr">&lt;groudier@club-internet.fr&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Greg Ungerer <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:gerg@stallion.oz.au">&lt;gerg@stallion.oz.au&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Harlan Stenn <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:Harlan.Stenn@pfcs.com">&lt;Harlan.Stenn@pfcs.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Havard Eidnes <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:Havard.Eidnes@runit.sintef.no">&lt;Havard.Eidnes@runit.sintef.no&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Hideaki Ohmon <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:ohmon@tom.sfc.keio.ac.jp">&lt;ohmon@tom.sfc.keio.ac.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Hidekazu Kuroki <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:hidekazu@cs.titech.ac.jp">&lt;hidekazu@cs.titech.ac.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Hidetoshi Shimokawa <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:simokawa@sat.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp">&lt;simokawa@sat.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Hideyuki Suzuki <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:hideyuki@sat.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp">&lt;hideyuki@sat.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Hironori Ikura <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:hikura@kaisei.org">&lt;hikura@kaisei.org&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Holger Veit <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:Holger.Veit@gmd.de">&lt;Holger.Veit@gmd.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Hung-Chi Chu <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:hcchu@r350.ee.ntu.edu.tw">&lt;hcchu@r350.ee.ntu.edu.tw&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Ian Vaudrey <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:i.vaudrey@bigfoot.com">&lt;i.vaudrey@bigfoot.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Igor Vinokurov <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:igor@zynaps.ru">&lt;igor@zynaps.ru&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Ikuo Nakagawa <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:ikuo@isl.intec.co.jp">&lt;ikuo@isl.intec.co.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>IMAMURA Tomoaki <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:tomoak-i@is.aist-nara.ac.jp">&lt;tomoak-i@is.aist-nara.ac.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Ishii Masahiro</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Issei Suzuki<emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:issei@t-cnet.or.jp">&lt;issei@t-cnet.or.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Itsuro Saito <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:saito@miv.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp">&lt;saito@miv.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>J. David Lowe <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:lowe@saturn5.com">&lt;lowe@saturn5.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>J.T. Conklin <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:jtc@cygnus.com">&lt;jtc@cygnus.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>James Clark <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:jjc@jclark.com">&lt;jjc@jclark.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>James da Silva <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:jds@cs.umd.edu">&lt;jds@cs.umd.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis> et al</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Janusz Kokot <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:janek@gaja.ipan.lublin.pl">&lt;janek@gaja.ipan.lublin.pl&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Jason Thorpe <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:thorpej@nas.nasa.gov">&lt;thorpej@nas.nasa.gov&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Javier Martin Rueda <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:jmrueda@diatel.upm.es">&lt;jmrueda@diatel.upm.es&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Jeff Bartig <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:jeffb@doit.wisc.edu">&lt;jeffb@doit.wisc.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Jeffrey Wheat <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:jeff@cetlink.net">&lt;jeff@cetlink.net&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Jian-Da Li <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:jdli@csie.NCTU.edu.tw">&lt;jdli@csie.NCTU.edu.tw&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Jim Binkley <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:jrb@cs.pdx.edu">&lt;jrb@cs.pdx.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Jim Lowe <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:james@cs.uwm.edu">&lt;james@cs.uwm.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Jim Wilson <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:wilson@moria.cygnus.com">&lt;wilson@moria.cygnus.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Joao Carlos Mendes Luis <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:jonny@coppe.ufrj.br">&lt;jonny@coppe.ufrj.br&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Joel Sutton <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:sutton@aardvark.apana.org.au">&lt;sutton@aardvark.apana.org.au&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Johann Tonsing <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:jtonsing@mikom.csir.co.za">&lt;jtonsing@mikom.csir.co.za&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>John Capo <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:jc@irbs.com">&lt;jc@irbs.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>John Heidemann <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:johnh@isi.edu">&lt;johnh@isi.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>John Perry <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:perry@vishnu.alias.net">&lt;perry@vishnu.alias.net&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>John Polstra <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:jdp@polstra.com">&lt;jdp@polstra.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>John Rochester <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:jr@cs.mun.ca">&lt;jr@cs.mun.ca&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Josef Karthauser <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:joe@uk.freebsd.org">&lt;joe@uk.freebsd.org&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Joseph Stein <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:joes@seaport.net">&lt;joes@seaport.net&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Josh Gilliam <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:josh@quick.net">&lt;josh@quick.net&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Josh Tiefenbach <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:josh@ican.net">&lt;josh@ican.net&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Juergen Lock <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:nox@jelal.hb.north.de">&lt;nox@jelal.hb.north.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Juha Inkari <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:inkari@cc.hut.fi">&lt;inkari@cc.hut.fi&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Julian Assange <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:proff@suburbia.net">&lt;proff@suburbia.net&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Julian Jenkins <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:kaveman@magna.com.au">&lt;kaveman@magna.com.au&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Julian Stacey <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:jhs@freebsd.org">&lt;jhs@freebsd.org&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Junichi Satoh <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:junichi@jp.freebsd.org">&lt;junichi@jp.freebsd.org&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Kapil Chowksey <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:kchowksey@hss.hns.com">&lt;kchowksey@hss.hns.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Kazuhiko Kiriyama <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:kiri@kiri.toba-cmt.ac.jp">&lt;kiri@kiri.toba-cmt.ac.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Keith Bostic <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:bostic@bostic.com">&lt;bostic@bostic.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Keith Moore</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Kenneth Monville <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:desmo@bandwidth.org">&lt;desmo@bandwidth.org&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Kent Vander Velden <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:graphix@iastate.edu">&lt;graphix@iastate.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Kirk McKusick <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:mckusick@mckusick.com">&lt;mckusick@mckusick.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Kiroh HARADA <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:kiroh@kh.rim.or.jp">&lt;kiroh@kh.rim.or.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Koichi Sato <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:copan@ppp.fastnet.or.jp">&lt;copan@ppp.fastnet.or.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Kostya Lukin <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:lukin@okbmei.msk.su">&lt;lukin@okbmei.msk.su&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Kurt Olsen <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:kurto@tiny.mcs.usu.edu">&lt;kurto@tiny.mcs.usu.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Lars Koeller <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:Lars.Koeller@Uni-Bielefeld.DE">&lt;Lars.Koeller@Uni-Bielefeld.DE&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Lucas James <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:Lucas.James@ldjpc.apana.org.au">&lt;Lucas.James@ldjpc.apana.org.au&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Luigi Rizzo <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:luigi@iet.unipi.it">&lt;luigi@iet.unipi.it&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Makoto MATSUSHITA <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:matusita@jp.freebsd.org">&lt;matusita@jp.freebsd.org&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Manu Iyengar <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:iyengar@grunthos.pscwa.psca.com">&lt;iyengar@grunthos.pscwa.psca.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Marc Frajola <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:marc@dev.com">&lt;marc@dev.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Marc Ramirez <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:mrami@mramirez.sy.yale.edu">&lt;mrami@mramirez.sy.yale.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Marc Slemko <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:marcs@znep.com">&lt;marcs@znep.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Marc van Kempen <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:wmbfmk@urc.tue.nl">&lt;wmbfmk@urc.tue.nl&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Mario Sergio Fujikawa Ferreira <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:lioux@gns.com.br">&lt;lioux@gns.com.br&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Mark Huizer <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:xaa@stack.nl">&lt;xaa@stack.nl&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Mark J. Taylor <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:mtaylor@cybernet.com">&lt;mtaylor@cybernet.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Mark Krentel <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:krentel@rice.edu">&lt;krentel@rice.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Mark Tinguely <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:tinguely@plains.nodak.edu">&lt;tinguely@plains.nodak.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis> <emphasis remap=tt><ulink URL="mailto:tinguely@hookie.cs.ndsu.NoDak.edu">&lt;tinguely@hookie.cs.ndsu.NoDak.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Martin Birgmeier</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Martti Kuparinen <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:erakupa@kk.etx.ericsson.se">&lt;erakupa@kk.etx.ericsson.se&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Masachika ISHIZUKA <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:ishizuka@isis.min.ntt.jp">&lt;ishizuka@isis.min.ntt.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Mats Lofkvist <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:mal@algonet.se">&lt;mal@algonet.se&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Matt Bartley <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:mbartley@lear35.cytex.com">&lt;mbartley@lear35.cytex.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Matt Thomas <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:thomas@lkg.dec.com">&lt;thomas@lkg.dec.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Matt White <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:mwhite+@CMU.EDU">&lt;mwhite+@CMU.EDU&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Matthew Hunt <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:mph@pobox.com">&lt;mph@pobox.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Matthew N. Dodd <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:winter@jurai.net">&lt;winter@jurai.net&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Matthew Stein <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:matt@bdd.net">&lt;matt@bdd.net&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Maurice Castro <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:maurice@planet.serc.rmit.edu.au">&lt;maurice@planet.serc.rmit.edu.au&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Michael Butschky <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:butsch@computi.erols.com">&lt;butsch@computi.erols.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Michael Elbel <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:me@FreeBSD.ORG">&lt;me@FreeBSD.ORG&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Michael Searle <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:searle@longacre.demon.co.uk">&lt;searle@longacre.demon.co.uk&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Miguel Angel Sagreras <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:msagre@cactus.fi.uba.ar">&lt;msagre@cactus.fi.uba.ar&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Mikael Hybsch <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:micke@dynas.se">&lt;micke@dynas.se&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Mikhail Teterin <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:mi@aldan.ziplink.net">&lt;mi@aldan.ziplink.net&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Mike McGaughey <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:mmcg@cs.monash.edu.au">&lt;mmcg@cs.monash.edu.au&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Mike Peck <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:mike@binghamton.edu">&lt;mike@binghamton.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Ming-I Hseh <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:PA@FreeBSD.ee.Ntu.edu.TW">&lt;PA@FreeBSD.ee.Ntu.edu.TW&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>MITA Yoshio <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:mita@jp.FreeBSD.ORG">&lt;mita@jp.FreeBSD.ORG&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>MOROHOSHI Akihiko <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:moro@race.u-tokyo.ac.jp">&lt;moro@race.u-tokyo.ac.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Murray Stokely <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:murray@cdrom.com">&lt;murray@cdrom.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>NAKAMURA Kazushi <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:nkazushi@highway.or.jp">&lt;nkazushi@highway.or.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Naoki Hamada <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:nao@tom-yam.or.jp">&lt;nao@tom-yam.or.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Narvi <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:narvi@haldjas.folklore.ee">&lt;narvi@haldjas.folklore.ee&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>NIIMI Satoshi <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:sa2c@and.or.jp">&lt;sa2c@and.or.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Nick Sayer <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:nsayer@quack.kfu.com">&lt;nsayer@quack.kfu.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Nicolas Souchu <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:Nicolas.Souchu@prism.uvsq.fr">&lt;Nicolas.Souchu@prism.uvsq.fr&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Nisha Talagala <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:nisha@cs.berkeley.edu">&lt;nisha@cs.berkeley.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Nobuhiro Yasutomi <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:nobu@psrc.isac.co.jp">&lt;nobu@psrc.isac.co.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Nobuyuki Koganemaru <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:kogane@kces.koganemaru.co.jp">&lt;kogane@kces.koganemaru.co.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Noritaka Ishizumi <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:graphite@jp.FreeBSD.ORG">&lt;graphite@jp.FreeBSD.ORG&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Oliver Fromme <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:oliver.fromme@heim3.tu-clausthal.de">&lt;oliver.fromme@heim3.tu-clausthal.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Oliver Laumann <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:net@informatik.uni-bremen.de">&lt;net@informatik.uni-bremen.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Oliver Oberdorf <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:oly@world.std.com">&lt;oly@world.std.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Paul Fox <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:pgf@foxharp.boston.ma.us">&lt;pgf@foxharp.boston.ma.us&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Paul Kranenburg <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:pk@cs.few.eur.nl">&lt;pk@cs.few.eur.nl&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Paul Mackerras <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:paulus@cs.anu.edu.au">&lt;paulus@cs.anu.edu.au&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Paulo Menezes <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:paulo@isr.uc.pt">&lt;paulo@isr.uc.pt&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Paul T. Root <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:proot@horton.iaces.com">&lt;proot@horton.iaces.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Pedro Giffuni <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:giffunip@asme.org">&lt;giffunip@asme.org&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Pedro A M Vazquez <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:vazquez@IQM.Unicamp.BR">&lt;vazquez@IQM.Unicamp.BR&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Peter Cornelius <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:pc@inr.fzk.de">&lt;pc@inr.fzk.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Peter Haight <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:peterh@prognet.com">&lt;peterh@prognet.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Peter Hawkins <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:peter@rhiannon.clari.net.au">&lt;peter@rhiannon.clari.net.au&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Peter Stubbs <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:PETERS@staidan.qld.edu.au">&lt;PETERS@staidan.qld.edu.au&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Pierre Beyssac <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:pb@fasterix.freenix.org">&lt;bp@fasterix.freenix.org&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Phil Maker <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:pjm@cs.ntu.edu.au">&lt;pjm@cs.ntu.edu.au&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>R. Kym Horsell</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Randall Hopper <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:rhh@stealth.ct.picker.com">&lt;rhh@stealth.ct.picker.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Richard Hwang <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:rhwang@bigpanda.com">&lt;rhwang@bigpanda.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Richard Seaman, Jr. <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:dick@tar.com">&lt;dick@tar.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Richard Stallman <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:rms@gnu.ai.mit.edu">&lt;rms@gnu.ai.mit.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Richard Wiwatowski <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:rjwiwat@adelaide.on.net">&lt;rjwiwat@adelaide.on.net&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Rob Mallory <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:rmallory@csusb.edu">&lt;rmallory@csusb.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Rob Shady <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:rls@id.net">&lt;rls@id.net&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Rob Snow <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:rsnow@txdirect.net">&lt;rsnow@txdirect.net&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Robert Sanders <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:rsanders@mindspring.com">&lt;rsanders@mindspring.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Robert Withrow <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:witr@rwwa.com">&lt;witr@rwwa.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Ronald Kuehn <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:kuehn@rz.tu-clausthal.de">&lt;kuehn@rz.tu-clausthal.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Roland Jesse <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:jesse@cs.uni-magdeburg.de">&lt;jesse@cs.uni-magdeburg.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Ruslan Shevchenko <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:rssh@cki.ipri.kiev.ua">&lt;rssh@cki.ipri.kiev.ua&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Samuel Lam <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:skl@ScalableNetwork.com">&lt;skl@ScalableNetwork.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Sander Vesik <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:sander@haldjas.folklore.ee">&lt;sander@haldjas.folklore.ee&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Sandro Sigala <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:ssigala@globalnet.it">&lt;ssigala@globalnet.it&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Sascha Blank <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:blank@fox.uni-trier.de">&lt;blank@fox.uni-trier.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Sascha Wildner <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:swildner@channelz.GUN.de">&lt;swildner@channelz.GUN.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Satoshi Taoka <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:taoka@infonets.hiroshima-u.ac.jp">&lt;taoka@infonets.hiroshima-u.ac.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Scott Blachowicz <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:scott.blachowicz@seaslug.org">&lt;scott.blachowicz@seaslug.org&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Scott A. Kenney <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:saken@rmta.ml.org">&lt;saken@rmta.ml.org&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Serge V. Vakulenko <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:vak@zebub.msk.su">&lt;vak@zebub.msk.su&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Sheldon Hearn <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:axl@iafrica.com">&lt;axl@iafrica.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Simon Marlow <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:simonm@dcs.gla.ac.uk">&lt;simonm@dcs.gla.ac.uk&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Slaven Rezic (Tomic) <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:eserte@cs.tu-berlin.de">&lt;eserte@cs.tu-berlin.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Soren Dayton <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:csdayton@midway.uchicago.edu">&lt;csdayton@midway.uchicago.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Soren Dossing <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:sauber@netcom.com">&lt;sauber@netcom.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Stefan Moeding <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:moeding@bn.DeTeMobil.de">&lt;moeding@bn.DeTeMobil.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Stephane Legrand <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:stephane@lituus.fr">&lt;stephane@lituus.fr&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Stephen J. Roznowski <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:sjr@home.net">&lt;sjr@home.net&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Steve Gerakines <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:steve2@genesis.tiac.net">&lt;steve2@genesis.tiac.net&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Suzuki Yoshiaki <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:zensyo@ann.tama.kawasaki.jp">&lt;zensyo@ann.tama.kawasaki.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Tadashi Kumano <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:kumano@strl.nhk.or.jp">&lt;kumano@strl.nhk.or.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Taguchi Takeshi <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:taguchi@tohoku.iij.ad.jp">&lt;taguchi@tohoku.iij.ad.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Takayuki Ariga <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:a00821@cc.hc.keio.ac.jp">&lt;a00821@cc.hc.keio.ac.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Terry Lambert <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:terry@lambert.org">&lt;terry@lambert.org&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Terry Lee <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:terry@uivlsi.csl.uiuc.edu">&lt;terry@uivlsi.csl.uiuc.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Tetsuya Furukawa <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:tetsuya@secom-sis.co.jp">&lt;tetsuya@secom-sis.co.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Theo Deraadt <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:deraadt@fsa.ca">&lt;deraadt@fsa.ca&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Thomas K&ouml;nig <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:Thomas.Koenig@ciw.uni-karlsruhe.de">&lt;Thomas.Koenig@ciw.uni-karlsruhe.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&THORN;&oacute;r&eth;ur &Iacute;varsson <emphasis
remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:totii@est.is">&lt;totii@est.is&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Tim Kientzle <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:kientzle@netcom.com">&lt;kientzle@netcom.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Tim Wilkinson <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:tim@sarc.city.ac.uk">&lt;tim@sarc.city.ac.uk&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Tom Samplonius <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:tom@misery.sdf.com">&lt;tom@misery.sdf.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Torbjorn Granlund <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:tege@matematik.su.se">&lt;tege@matematik.su.se&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Toshihiro Kanda <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:candy@fct.kgc.co.jp">&lt;candy@fct.kgc.co.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Trefor S. <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:trefor@flevel.co.uk">&lt;trefor@flevel.co.uk&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Ville Eerola <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:ve@sci.fi">&lt;ve@sci.fi&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Werner Griessl <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:werner@btp1da.phy.uni-bayreuth.de">&lt;werner@btp1da.phy.uni-bayreuth.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Wes Santee <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:wsantee@wsantee.oz.net">&lt;wsantee@wsantee.oz.net&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Wilko Bulte <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:wilko@yedi.iaf.nl">&lt;wilko@yedi.iaf.nl&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Wolfgang Stanglmeier <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:wolf@kintaro.cologne.de">&lt;wolf@kintaro.cologne.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Wu Ching-hong <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:woju@FreeBSD.ee.Ntu.edu.TW">&lt;woju@FreeBSD.ee.Ntu.edu.TW&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Yen-Shuo Su <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:yssu@CCCA.NCTU.edu.tw">&lt;yssu@CCCA.NCTU.edu.tw&gt;</ulink></emphasis> </para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Yoshiaki Uchikawa <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:yoshiaki@kt.rim.or.jp">&lt;yoshiaki@kt.rim.or.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Yoshiro Mihira <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:sanpei@yy.cs.keio.ac.jp">&lt;sanpei@yy.cs.keio.ac.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Yukihiro Nakai <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:nakai@mlab.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp">&lt;nakai@mlab.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Yuval Yarom <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:yval@cs.huji.ac.il">&lt;yval@cs.huji.ac.il&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Yves Fonk <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:yves@cpcoup5.tn.tudelft.nl">&lt;yves@cpcoup5.tn.tudelft.nl&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>386BSD Patch Kit Patch Contributors</title>
<para>(in alphabetical order by first name):</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Adam Glass <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:glass@postgres.berkeley.edu">&lt;glass@postgres.berkeley.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Adrian Hall <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:adrian@ibmpcug.co.uk">&lt;adrian@ibmpcug.co.uk&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Andrey A. Chernov <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:ache@astral.msk.su">&lt;ache@astral.msk.su&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Andrew Herbert <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:andrew@werple.apana.org.au">&lt;andrew@werple.apana.org.au&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Andrew Moore <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:alm@netcom.com">&lt;alm@netcom.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Andy Valencia <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:ajv@csd.mot.com">&lt;ajv@csd.mot.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis> <emphasis remap=tt><ulink URL="mailto:jtk@netcom.com">&lt;jtk@netcom.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Arne Henrik Juul <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:arnej@Lise.Unit.NO">&lt;arnej@Lise.Unit.NO&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Bakul Shah <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:bvs@bitblocks.com">&lt;bvs@bitblocks.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Barry Lustig <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:barry@ictv.com">&lt;barry@ictv.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Bob Wilcox <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:bob@obiwan.uucp">&lt;bob@obiwan.uucp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Branko Lankester</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Brett Lymn <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:blymn@mulga.awadi.com.AU">&lt;blymn@mulga.awadi.com.AU&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Charles Hannum <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:mycroft@ai.mit.edu">&lt;mycroft@ai.mit.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Chris G. Demetriou <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:cgd@postgres.berkeley.edu">&lt;cgd@postgres.berkeley.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Chris Torek <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:torek@ee.lbl.gov">&lt;torek@ee.lbl.gov&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Christoph Robitschko <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:chmr@edvz.tu-graz.ac.at">&lt;chmr@edvz.tu-graz.ac.at&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Daniel Poirot <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:poirot@aio.jsc.nasa.gov">&lt;poirot@aio.jsc.nasa.gov&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Dave Burgess <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:burgess@hrd769.brooks.af.mil">&lt;burgess@hrd769.brooks.af.mil&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Dave Rivers <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:rivers@ponds.uucp">&lt;rivers@ponds.uucp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>David Dawes <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:dawes@physics.su.OZ.AU">&lt;dawes@physics.su.OZ.AU&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>David Greenman <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:davidg@Root.COM">&lt;davidg@Root.COM&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Eric J. Haug <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:ejh@slustl.slu.edu">&lt;ejh@slustl.slu.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Felix Gaehtgens <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:felix@escape.vsse.in-berlin.de">&lt;felix@escape.vsse.in-berlin.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Frank Maclachlan <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:fpm@crash.cts.com">&lt;fpm@crash.cts.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Gary A. Browning <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:gab10@griffcd.amdahl.com">&lt;gab10@griffcd.amdahl.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Gary Howland <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:gary@hotlava.com">&lt;gary@hotlava.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Geoff Rehmet <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:csgr@alpha.ru.ac.za">&lt;csgr@alpha.ru.ac.za&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Goran Hammarback <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:goran@astro.uu.se">&lt;goran@astro.uu.se&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Guido van Rooij <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:guido@gvr.win.tue.nl">&lt;guido@gvr.win.tue.nl&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Guy Harris <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:guy@auspex.com">&lt;guy@auspex.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Havard Eidnes <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:Havard.Eidnes@runit.sintef.no">&lt;Havard.Eidnes@runit.sintef.no&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Herb Peyerl <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:hpeyerl@novatel.cuc.ab.ca">&lt;hpeyerl@novatel.cuc.ab.ca&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Holger Veit <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:Holger.Veit@gmd.de">&lt;Holger.Veit@gmd.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Ishii Masahiro, R. Kym Horsell</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>J.T. Conklin <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:jtc@cygnus.com">&lt;jtc@cygnus.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Jagane D Sundar <emphasis remap=tt><ulink URL="mailto:
jagane@netcom.com ">&lt; jagane@netcom.com
&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>James Clark <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:jjc@jclark.com">&lt;jjc@jclark.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>James Jegers <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:jimj@miller.cs.uwm.edu">&lt;jimj@miller.cs.uwm.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>James W. Dolter</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>James da Silva <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:jds@cs.umd.edu">&lt;jds@cs.umd.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis> et al</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Jay Fenlason <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:hack@datacube.com">&lt;hack@datacube.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Jim Wilson <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:wilson@moria.cygnus.com">&lt;wilson@moria.cygnus.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>J&ouml;rg Lohse <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:lohse@tech7.informatik.uni-hamburg.de">&lt;lohse@tech7.informatik.uni-hamburg.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>J&ouml;rg Wunsch <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:joerg_wunsch@uriah.heep.sax.de">&lt;joerg_wunsch@uriah.heep.sax.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>John Dyson - <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:formerly dyson@ref.tfs.com">&lt;formerly
dyson@ref.tfs.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>John Woods <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:jfw@eddie.mit.edu">&lt;jfw@eddie.mit.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Jordan K. Hubbard <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:jkh@whisker.hubbard.ie">&lt;jkh@whisker.hubbard.ie&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Julian Elischer <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:julian@dialix.oz.au">&lt;julian@dialix.oz.au&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Julian Stacey <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:jhs@freebsd.org">&lt;jhs@freebsd.org&gt;</ulink></emphasis> </para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Karl Lehenbauer <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:karl@NeoSoft.com">&lt;karl@NeoSoft.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis> <emphasis remap=tt><ulink URL="mailto:karl@one.neosoft.com">&lt;karl@one.neosoft.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Keith Bostic <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:bostic@toe.CS.Berkeley.EDU">&lt;bostic@toe.CS.Berkeley.EDU&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Ken Hughes</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Kent Talarico <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:kent@shipwreck.tsoft.net">&lt;kent@shipwreck.tsoft.net&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Kevin Lahey <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:kml%rokkaku.UUCP@mathcs.emory.edu">&lt;kml%rokkaku.UUCP@mathcs.emory.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis> <emphasis remap=tt><ulink URL="mailto:kml@mosquito.cis.ufl.edu">&lt;kml@mosquito.cis.ufl.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Marc Frajola <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:marc@dev.com">&lt;marc@dev.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Mark Tinguely <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:tinguely@plains.nodak.edu">&lt;tinguely@plains.nodak.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis> <emphasis remap=tt><ulink URL="mailto:tinguely@hookie.cs.ndsu.NoDak.edu">&lt;tinguely@hookie.cs.ndsu.NoDak.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Martin Renters <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:martin@tdc.on.ca">&lt;martin@tdc.on.ca&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Michael Clay <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:mclay@weareb.org">&lt;mclay@weareb.org&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Michael Galassi <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:nerd@percival.rain.com">&lt;nerd@percival.rain.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Mike Durkin <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:mdurkin@tsoft.sf-bay.org">&lt;mdurkin@tsoft.sf-bay.org&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Naoki Hamada <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:nao@tom-yam.or.jp">&lt;nao@tom-yam.or.jp&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Nate Williams <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:nate@bsd.coe.montana.edu">&lt;nate@bsd.coe.montana.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Nick Handel <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:nhandel@NeoSoft.com">&lt;nhandel@NeoSoft.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis> <emphasis remap=tt><ulink URL="mailto:nick@madhouse.neosoft.com">&lt;nick@madhouse.neosoft.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Pace Willisson <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:pace@blitz.com">&lt;pace@blitz.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Paul Kranenburg <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:pk@cs.few.eur.nl">&lt;pk@cs.few.eur.nl&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Paul Mackerras <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:paulus@cs.anu.edu.au">&lt;paulus@cs.anu.edu.au&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Paul Popelka <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:paulp@uts.amdahl.com">&lt;paulp@uts.amdahl.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Peter da Silva <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:peter@NeoSoft.com">&lt;peter@NeoSoft.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Phil Sutherland <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:philsuth@mycroft.dialix.oz.au">&lt;philsuth@mycroft.dialix.oz.au&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Poul-Henning Kamp<emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:phk@FreeBSD.ORG">&lt;phk@FreeBSD.ORG&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Ralf Friedl <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:friedl@informatik.uni-kl.de">&lt;friedl@informatik.uni-kl.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Rick Macklem <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:root@snowhite.cis.uoguelph.ca">&lt;root@snowhite.cis.uoguelph.ca&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Robert D. Thrush <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:rd@phoenix.aii.com">&lt;rd@phoenix.aii.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Rodney W. Grimes <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:rgrimes@cdrom.com">&lt;rgrimes@cdrom.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Sascha Wildner <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:swildner@channelz.GUN.de">&lt;swildner@channelz.GUN.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Scott Burris <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:scott@pita.cns.ucla.edu">&lt;scott@pita.cns.ucla.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Scott Reynolds <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:scott@clmqt.marquette.mi.us">&lt;scott@clmqt.marquette.mi.us&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Sean Eric Fagan <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:sef@kithrup.com">&lt;sef@kithrup.com&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Simon J Gerraty <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:sjg@melb.bull.oz.au">&lt;sjg@melb.bull.oz.au&gt;</ulink></emphasis> <emphasis remap=tt><ulink URL="mailto:sjg@zen.void.oz.au">&lt;sjg@zen.void.oz.au&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Stephen McKay <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:syssgm@devetir.qld.gov.au">&lt;syssgm@devetir.qld.gov.au&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Terry Lambert <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:terry@icarus.weber.edu">&lt;terry@icarus.weber.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Terry Lee <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:terry@uivlsi.csl.uiuc.edu">&lt;terry@uivlsi.csl.uiuc.edu&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Tor Egge <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:Tor.Egge@idi.ntnu.no">&lt;Tor.Egge@idi.ntnu.no&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Warren Toomey <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:wkt@csadfa.cs.adfa.oz.au">&lt;wkt@csadfa.cs.adfa.oz.au&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Wiljo Heinen <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:wiljo@freeside.ki.open.de">&lt;wiljo@freeside.ki.open.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>William Jolitz <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:withheld">&lt;withheld&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Wolfgang Solfrank <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:ws@tools.de">&lt;ws@tools.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Wolfgang Stanglmeier <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:wolf@dentaro.GUN.de">&lt;wolf@dentaro.GUN.de&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Yuval Yarom <emphasis remap=tt><ulink
URL="mailto:yval@cs.huji.ac.il">&lt;yval@cs.huji.ac.il&gt;</ulink></emphasis></para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect1>
</chapter>
<chapter
id="policies">
<title>Source Tree Guidelines and Policies
</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.phk;.</emphasis></para>
<para>This chapter documents various guidelines and policies in force
for the FreeBSD source tree.</para>
<sect1
id="policies-maintainer">
<title>MAINTAINER on Makefiles
</title>
<para>June 1996.</para>
<para>If a particular portion of the FreeBSD distribution is being
maintained by a person or group of persons, they can communicate
this fact to the world by adding a</para>
<para>
<literallayout> MAINTAINER= email-addresses</literallayout>
</para>
<para>line to the <filename>Makefile</filename>s covering this portion
of the source tree.</para>
<para>The semantics of this are as follows:</para>
<para>The maintainer owns and is responsible for that code. This
means that he is responsible for fixing bugs and answer problem
reports pertaining to that piece of the code, and in the case of
contributed software, for tracking new versions, as
appropriate.</para>
<para>Changes to directories which have a maintainer defined shall be
sent to the maintainer for review before being committed. Only if
the maintainer does not respond for an unacceptable period of time,
to several emails, will it be acceptable to commit changes without
review by the maintainer. However, it is suggested that you try and
have the changes reviewed by someone else if at all
possible.</para>
<para>It is of course not acceptable to add a person or group as
maintainer unless they agree to assume this duty. On the other hand
it doesn't have to be a committer and it can easily be a group of
people.</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Contributed Software</title>
<para>June 1996.</para>
<para>Some parts of the FreeBSD distribution consist of software that
is actively being maintained outside the FreeBSD project. For
historical reasons, we call this <emphasis>contributed</emphasis>
software. Some examples are perl, gcc and patch.</para>
<para>Over the last couple of years, various methods have been used in
dealing with this type of software and all have some number of
advantages and drawbacks. No clear winner has emerged.</para>
<para>Since this is the case, after some debate one of these methods
has been selected as the <quote>official</quote> method and will be required for
future imports of software of this kind. Furthermore, it is
strongly suggested that existing contributed software converge on
this model over time, as it has significant advantages over the old
method, including the ability to easily obtain diffs relative to the
<quote>official</quote> versions of the source by everyone (even without cvs
access). This will make it significantly easier to return changes
to the primary developers of the contributed software.</para>
<para>Ultimately, however, it comes down to the people actually doing
the work. If using this model is particularly unsuited to the
package being dealt with, exceptions to these rules may be granted
only with the approval of the core team and with the general
consensus of the other developers. The ability to maintain the
package in the future will be a key issue in the decisions.</para>
<para>The <emphasis remap=tt>Tcl</emphasis> embedded programming
language will be used as example of how this model works:</para>
<para>
<filename>src/contrib/tcl</filename> contains the source as
distributed by the maintainers of this package. Parts that are
entirely not applicable for FreeBSD can be removed. In the case of
Tcl, the <filename>mac</filename>, <filename>win</filename> and
<filename>compat</filename> subdirectories were eliminated before
the import</para>
<para>
<filename>src/lib/libtcl</filename> contains only a "bmake style"
<filename>Makefile</filename> that uses the standard
<filename>bsd.lib.mk</filename> makefile rules to produce the
library and install the documentation.</para>
<para>
<filename>src/usr.bin/tclsh</filename> contains only a bmake style
<filename>Makefile</filename> which will produce and install the
<command>tclsh</command> program and its associated man-pages using the standard
<filename>bsd.prog.mk</filename> rules.</para>
<para>
<filename>src/tools/tools/tcl_bmake</filename> contains a couple of
shell-scripts that can be of help when the tcl software needs
updating. These are not part of the built or installed
software.</para>
<para>The important thing here is that the
<filename>src/contrib/tcl</filename> directory is created according
to the rules: It is supposed to contain the sources as distributed
(on a proper CVS vendor-branch) with as few FreeBSD-specific changes
as possible. The 'easy-import' tool on freefall will assist in
doing the import, but if there are any doubts on how to go about it,
it is imperative that you ask first and not blunder ahead and hope
it <quote>works out</quote>. CVS is not forgiving of import accidents and a fair
amount of effort is required to back out major mistakes.</para>
<para>Because of some unfortunate design limitations with CVS's vendor
branches, it is required that <quote>official</quote> patches from the vendor be
applied to the original distributed sources and the result
re-imported onto the vendor branch again. Official patches should
never be patched into the FreeBSD checked out version and
"committed", as this destroys the vendor branch coherency and makes
importing future versions rather difficult as there will be
conflicts.</para>
<para>Since many packages contain files that are meant for
compatibility with other architectures and environments that
FreeBSD, it is permissible to remove parts of the distribution tree
that are of no interest to FreeBSD in order to save space. Files
containing copyright notices and release-note kind of information
applicable to the remaining files shall <emphasis>not</emphasis> be
removed.</para>
<para>If it seems easier, the <command>bmake</command> <filename>Makefile</filename>s
can be produced from the dist tree automatically by some utility,
something which would hopefully make it even easier to upgrade to a
new version. If this is done, be sure to check in such utilities
(as necessary) in the <filename>src/tools</filename> directory along
with the port itself so that it is available to future
maintainers.</para>
<para>In the <filename>src/contrib/tcl</filename> level directory, a
file called <filename>FREEBSD-upgrade</filename> should be added and
it should states things like:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para> Which files have been left out</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Where the original distribution was obtained from and/or
the official master site.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Where to send patches back to the original authors</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> Perhaps an overview of the FreeBSD-specific changes that
have been made.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>However, please do not import
<filename>FREEBSD-upgrade</filename> with the contributed source.
Rather you should <command>cvs add FREEBSD-upgrade ; cvs ci</command> after the
initial import. Example wording from
<filename>src/contrib/cpio</filename> is below:</para>
<para>
<literallayout>This directory contains virgin sources of the
original distribution files on a "vendor" branch. Do not, under
any circumstances, attempt to upgrade the files in this directory
via patches and a cvs commit. New versions or official-patch
versions must be imported. For the import of GNU cpio 2.4.2, the
following files were removed: INSTALL cpio.info
mkdir.c Makefile.in cpio.texi mkinstalldirs
To upgrade to a newer version of cpio, when it is available: 1.
Unpack the new version into an empty directory. [Do not make ANY
changes to the files.] 2. Remove the files listed above and any
others that don't apply to FreeBSD. 3. Use the command: cvs import
-m 'Virgin import of GNU cpio v&lt;version&gt;' \ src/contrib/cpio
GNU v&lt;version&gt; For example, to do the import of version
2.4.2, I typed: cvs import -m 'Virgin import of GNU v2.4.2' \
src/contrib/cpio GNU v2.4.2 4. Follow the instructions printed out
in step 3 to resolve any conflicts between local FreeBSD changes
and the newer version. Do not, under any circumstances, deviate
from this procedure. To make local changes to cpio, simply patch
and commit to the main branch (aka HEAD). Never make local
changes on the GNU branch. All local changes should be submitted
to "cpio@gnu.ai.mit.edu" for inclusion in the next vendor release.
obrien@freebsd.org - 30 March 1997</literallayout>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="policies-shlib">
<title>Shared Libraries
</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.asami;, &a.peter;, and
&a.obrien;.<!-- <br> --> 9 December 1996.</emphasis></para>
<para>If you are adding shared library support to a port or other
piece of software that doesn't have one, the version numbers should
follow these rules. Generally, the resulting numbers will have
nothing to do with the release version of the software.</para>
<para>The three principles of shared library building are:</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Start from 1.0</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If there is a change that is backwards compatible, bump
minor number</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>If there is an incompatible change, bump major
number</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>For instance, added functions and bugfixes result in the minor
version number being bumped, while deleted functions, changed
function call syntax etc. will force the major version number to
change.</para>
<para>Stick to version numbers of the form major.minor (x.y). Our
dynamic linker does not handle version numbers of the form x.y.z
well. Any version number after the <quote>y</quote> (ie. the third digit) is
totally ignored when comparing shared lib version numbers to decide
which library to link with. Given two shared libraries that differ
only in the `micro' revision, ld.so will link with the higher one.
Ie: if you link with <filename>libfoo.so.3.3.3</filename>, the
linker only records 3.3 in the headers, and will link with anything
starting with <filename>libfoo.so.3</filename>.(anything &gt;=
3).(highest available).</para>
<note>
<para><filename>ld.so</filename> will always use the highest
"minor" revision. Ie: it will use <filename>libc.so.2.2</filename>
in preference to <filename>libc.so.2.0</filename>, even if the
program was initially linked with
<filename>libc.so.2.0</filename>.</para>
</note>
<para>For non-port libraries, it is also our policy to change the
shared library version number only once between releases. When you
make a change to a system library that requires the version number
to be bumped, check the <filename>Makefile</filename>'s commit logs.
It is the responsibility of the committer to ensure that the first
such change since the release will result in the shared library
version number in the <filename>Makefile</filename> to be updated,
and any subsequent changes will not.
</para>
</sect1>
</chapter>
<chapter
id="kernelopts">
<title>Adding New Kernel Configuration Options</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.joerg;</emphasis></para>
<note>
<para>You should be familiar with the section about <xref
linkend="kernelconfig" remap="kernel configuration">
before reading here.</para>
</note>
<sect1>
<title>What's a <emphasis>Kernel Option</emphasis>, Anyway?</title>
<para>The use of kernel options is basically described in the <xref
linkend="kernelconfig-options" remap="kernel configuration">
section. There's also an explanation of <quote>historic</quote> and
<quote>new-style</quote> options. The ultimate goal is to eventually turn all
the supported options in the kernel into new-style ones, so for
people who correctly did a <command>make depend</command>
in their kernel compile directory after running
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>config</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, the build process will automatically
pick up modified options, and only recompile those files where it is
necessary. Wiping out the old compile directory on each run of
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>config</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> as it is still done now can then be
eliminated again.</para>
<para>Basically, a kernel option is nothing else than the definition
of a C preprocessor macro for the kernel compilation process. To
make the build truly optional, the corresponding part of the kernel
source (or kernel <filename>.h</filename> file) must be written with
the option concept in mind, i. e. the default must have been made
overridable by the config option. This is usually done with
something like:</para>
<para>
<literallayout>#ifndef THIS_OPTION #define THIS_OPTION
(some_default_value) #endif /* THIS_OPTION */</literallayout>
</para>
<para>This way, an administrator mentioning another value for the
option in his config file will take the default out of effect, and
replace it with his new value. Clearly, the new value will be
substituted into the source code during the preprocessor run, so it
must be a valid C expression in whatever context the default value
would have been used.</para>
<para>It is also possible to create value-less options that simply
enable or disable a particular piece of code by embracing it
in</para>
<para>
<literallayout>#ifdef THAT_OPTION [your code here]
#endif</literallayout>
</para>
<para>Simply mentioning <symbol>THAT_OPTION</symbol> in the config
file (with or without any value) will then turn on the corresponding
piece of code.</para>
<para>People familiar with the C language will immediately recognize
that everything could be counted as a <quote>config option</quote> where there
is at least a single <literal>#ifdef</literal>
referencing it... However, it's unlikely that many people would
put</para>
<para>
<literallayout> options notyet,notdef</literallayout>
</para>
<para>in their config file, and then wonder why the kernel compilation
falls over. :-)</para>
<para>Clearly, using arbitrary names for the options makes it very
hard to track their usage throughout the kernel source tree. That
is the rationale behind the <emphasis>new-style</emphasis> option
scheme, where each option goes into a separate
<filename>.h</filename> file in the kernel compile directory, which
is by convention named
<filename>opt_<replaceable>foo</replaceable>.h</filename>. This way,
the usual Makefile dependencies could be applied, and <command>make</command> can determine what needs to be recompiled
once an option has been changed.</para>
<para>The old-style option mechanism still has one advantage for local
options or maybe experimental options that have a short anticipated
lifetime: since it is easy to add a new <literal>#ifdef</literal> to the kernel source, this has already
made it a kernel config option. In this case, the administrator
using such an option is responsible himself for knowing about its
implications (and maybe manually forcing the recompilation of parts
of his kernel). Once the transition of all supported options has
been done, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>config</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> will warn whenever an
unsupported option appears in the config file, but it will
nevertheless include it into the kernel Makefile.</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Now What Do I Have to Do for it?</title>
<para>First, edit <filename>sys/conf/options</filename> (or
<filename>sys/i386/conf/options.<replaceable>&lt;arch&gt;</replaceable></filename>, e. g. <filename>sys/i386/conf/options.i386</filename>), and select an <filename>opt_<replaceable>foo</replaceable>.h</filename> file where your new option would best go into.</para>
<para>If there is already something that comes close to the purpose of
the new option, pick this. For example, options modifying the
overall behaviour of the SCSI subsystem can go into
<filename>opt_scsi.h</filename>. By default, simply mentioning an
option in the appropriate option file, say <acronym>FOO</acronym>,
implies its value will go into the corresponding file
<filename>opt_foo.h</filename>. This can be overridden on the
right-hand side of a rule by specifying another filename.</para>
<para>If there is no
<filename>opt_<replaceable>foo</replaceable>.h</filename> already
available for the intended new option, invent a new name. Make it
meaningful, and comment the new section in the
<filename>options[<replaceable>.&lt;arch&gt;</replaceable>]</filename> file. <citerefentry><refentrytitle>config</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> will automagically pick up the change, and create that file next time it is run. Most options should go in a header file by themselves..</para>
<para>Packing too many options into a single
<filename>opt_<replaceable>foo</replaceable>.h</filename> will cause
too many kernel files to be rebuilt when one of the options has been
changed in the config file.</para>
<para>Finally, find out which kernel files depend on the new option.
Unless you have just invented your option, and it does not exist
anywhere yet,</para>
<para>
<literallayout> find /usr/src/sys -name type f | xargs fgrep
NEW_OPTION</literallayout>
</para>
<para>is your friend in finding them. Go and edit all those files,
and add</para>
<para>
<literallayout>#include "opt_foo.h"</literallayout>
</para>
<para><emphasis>on top</emphasis>, before all the <literal>#include &lt;xxx.h&gt;</literal> stuff. This sequence
is most important as the options could override defaults from the
regular include files, if the defaults are of the form</para>
<para>
<literallayout>#ifndef NEW_OPTION #define NEW_OPTION (something)
#endif</literallayout>
</para>
<para>in the regular header.</para>
<para>Adding an option that overrides something in a system header
file (i. e., a file sitting in
<filename>/usr/include/sys/</filename>) is almost always a mistake.
<filename>opt_<replaceable>foo</replaceable>.h</filename> cannot be
included into those files since it would break the headers more
seriously, but if it is not included, then places that include it
may get an inconsistent value for the option. Yes, there are
precedents for this right now, but that does not make them more
correct.
</para>
</sect1>
</chapter>
<chapter
id="kerneldebug">
<title>Kernel Debugging</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.paul; and &a.joerg;</emphasis></para>
<sect1>
<title>Debugging a Kernel Crash Dump with KGDB</title>
<para>Here are some instructions for getting kernel debugging working
on a crash dump. They assume that you have enough swap space for a
crash dump. If you have multiple swap partitions and the first one
is too small to hold the dump, you can configure your kernel to use
an alternate dump device (in the <literal>config
kernel</literal> line), or you can specify an alternate using the
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>dumpon</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> command. Dumps to non-swap devices, tapes for example,
are currently not supported. Config your kernel using
<command>config -g</command>. See <xref linkend="kernelconfig"
remap="Kernel Configuration"> for
details on configuring the FreeBSD kernel.</para>
<para>Use the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dumpon</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> command to tell the kernel
where to dump to (note that this will have to be done after
configuring the partition in question as swap space via
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>swapon</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>). This is normally arranged via
<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> and <filename>/etc/rc</filename>.
Alternatively, you can hard-code the dump device via the `dump'
clause in the `config' line of your kernel config file. This is
deprecated and should be used only if you want a crash dump from a
kernel that crashes during booting.</para>
<note>
<para>In the following, the term <command>kgdb</command> refers to
<command>gdb</command> run in `kernel debug mode'. This can be
accomplished by either starting the <command>gdb</command> with
the option <option>-k</option>, or by linking and starting it
under the name <command>kgdb</command>. This is not being done by
default, however, and the idea is basically deprecated since the
GNU folks do not like their tools to behave differently when
called by another name. This feature may well be discontinued in
further releases.</para>
</note>
<para>When the kernel has been built make a copy of it, say
<filename>kernel.debug</filename>, and then run <command>strip
-d</command> on the original. Install the original as normal. You
may also install the unstripped kernel, but symbol table lookup time
for some programs will drastically increase, and since the whole
kernel is loaded entirely at boot time and cannot be swapped out
later, several megabytes of physical memory will be wasted.</para>
<para>If you are testing a new kernel, for example by typing the new
kernel's name at the boot prompt, but need to boot a different one
in order to get your system up and running again, boot it only into
single user state using the <option>-s</option> flag at the boot
prompt, and then perform the following steps:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; fsck -p mount -a -t ufs # so your file system for
/var/crash is writable &prompt.root; savecore -N /kernel.panicked /var/crash
&prompt.root; exit # ...to multi-user</screen>
</informalexample> This instructs <citerefentry><refentrytitle>savecore</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to
use another kernel for symbol name extraction. It would otherwise
default to the currently running kernel and most likely not do
anything at all since the crash dump and the kernel symbols
differ.</para>
<para>Now, after a crash dump, go to
<filename>/sys/compile/WHATEVER</filename> and run <command>kgdb</command>. From <command>kgdb</command>
do:
<informalexample>
<screen> symbol-file kernel.debug exec-file /var/crash/kernel.0
core-file /var/crash/vmcore.0</screen>
</informalexample> and voila, you can debug the crash dump using the
kernel sources just like you can for any other program.</para>
<para>Here is a script log of a <command>kgdb</command>
session illustrating the procedure. Long lines have been folded to
improve readability, and the lines are numbered for reference.
Despite this, it is a real-world error trace taken during the
development of the pcvt console driver.
<informalexample>
<screen> 1:Script started on Fri Dec 30 23:15:22 1994 2:uriah #
cd /sys/compile/URIAH 3:uriah # kgdb kernel /var/crash/vmcore.1
4:Reading symbol data from
/usr/src/sys/compile/URIAH/kernel...done. 5:IdlePTD 1f3000
6:panic: because you said to! 7:current pcb at 1e3f70 8:Reading
in symbols for ../../i386/i386/machdep.c...done. 9:(kgdb) where
10:#0 boot (arghowto=256) (../../i386/i386/machdep.c line 767)
11:#1 0xf0115159 in panic () 12:#2 0xf01955bd in diediedie ()
(../../i386/i386/machdep.c line 698) 13:#3 0xf010185e in
db_fncall () 14:#4 0xf0101586 in db_command (-266509132,
-266509516, -267381073) 15:#5 0xf0101711 in db_command_loop ()
16:#6 0xf01040a0 in db_trap () 17:#7 0xf0192976 in kdb_trap
(12, 0, -272630436, -266743723) 18:#8 0xf019d2eb in trap_fatal
(...) 19:#9 0xf019ce60 in trap_pfault (...) 20:#10 0xf019cb2f
in trap (...) 21:#11 0xf01932a1 in exception:calltrap () 22:#12
0xf0191503 in cnopen (...) 23:#13 0xf0132c34 in spec_open ()
24:#14 0xf012d014 in vn_open () 25:#15 0xf012a183 in open ()
26:#16 0xf019d4eb in syscall (...) 27:(kgdb) up 10 28:Reading in
symbols for ../../i386/i386/trap.c...done. 29:#10 0xf019cb2f in
trap (frame={tf_es = -260440048, tf_ds = 16, tf_\ 30:edi = 3072,
tf_esi = -266445372, tf_ebp = -272630356, tf_isp = -27\
31:2630396, tf_ebx = -266427884, tf_edx = 12, tf_ecx =
-266427884, tf\ 32:_eax = 64772224, tf_trapno = 12, tf_err =
-272695296, tf_eip = -26\ 33:6672343, tf_cs = -266469368,
tf_eflags = 66066, tf_esp = 3072, tf_\ 34:ss = -266427884})
(../../i386/i386/trap.c line 283) 35:283
(void) trap_pfault(&amp;frame, FALSE); 36:(kgdb) frame
frame-&gt;tf_ebp frame-&gt;tf_eip 37:Reading in symbols for
../../i386/isa/pcvt/pcvt_drv.c...done. 38:#0 0xf01ae729 in
pcopen (dev=3072, flag=3, mode=8192, p=(struct p\ 39:roc *)
0xf07c0c00) (../../i386/isa/pcvt/pcvt_drv.c line 403) 40:403
return ((*linesw[tp-&gt;t_line].l_open)(dev, tp)); 41:(kgdb)
list 42:398 43:399 tp-&gt;t_state |=
TS_CARR_ON; 44:400 tp-&gt;t_cflag |= CLOCAL; /*
cannot be a modem (:-) */ 45:401 46:402 #if PCVT_NETBSD
|| (PCVT_FREEBSD &gt;= 200) 47:403 return
((*linesw[tp-&gt;t_line].l_open)(dev, tp)); 48:404 #else
49:405 return ((*linesw[tp-&gt;t_line].l_open)(dev,
tp, flag)); 50:406 #endif /* PCVT_NETBSD || (PCVT_FREEBSD
&gt;= 200) */ 51:407 } 52:(kgdb) print tp 53:Reading in
symbols for ../../i386/i386/cons.c...done. 54:$1 = (struct tty
*) 0x1bae 55:(kgdb) print tp-&gt;t_line 56:$2 = 1767990816
57:(kgdb) up 58:#1 0xf0191503 in cnopen (dev=0x00000000,
flag=3, mode=8192, p=(st\ 59:ruct proc *) 0xf07c0c00)
(../../i386/i386/cons.c line 126) 60: return
((*cdevsw[major(dev)].d_open)(dev, flag, mode, p)); 61:(kgdb) up
62:#2 0xf0132c34 in spec_open () 63:(kgdb) up 64:#3 0xf012d014
in vn_open () 65:(kgdb) up 66:#4 0xf012a183 in open ()
67:(kgdb) up 68:#5 0xf019d4eb in syscall (frame={tf_es = 39,
tf_ds = 39, tf_edi =\ 69: 2158592, tf_esi = 0, tf_ebp =
-272638436, tf_isp = -272629788, tf\ 70:_ebx = 7086, tf_edx = 1,
tf_ecx = 0, tf_eax = 5, tf_trapno = 582, \ 71:tf_err = 582,
tf_eip = 75749, tf_cs = 31, tf_eflags = 582, tf_esp \ 72:=
-272638456, tf_ss = 39}) (../../i386/i386/trap.c line 673)
73:673 error = (*callp-&gt;sy_call)(p, args, rval);
74:(kgdb) up 75:Initial frame selected; you cannot go up.
76:(kgdb) quit 77:uriah # exit 78:exit 79: 80:Script done on Fri
Dec 30 23:18:04 1994</screen>
</informalexample> Comments to the above script:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>line 6:</term>
<listitem>
<para>This is a dump taken from within DDB (see below), hence
the panic comment <quote>because you said to!</quote>, and a rather
long stack trace; the initial reason for going into DDB has
been a page fault trap though.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>line 20:</term>
<listitem>
<para>This is the location of function
<function>trap()</function> in the stack trace. </para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>line 36:</term>
<listitem>
<para>Force usage of a new stack frame; this is no longer
necessary now. The stack frames are supposed to point to
the right locations now, even in case of a trap. (I do not
have a new core dump handy &lt;g&gt;, my kernel has not
panicked for a rather long time.) From looking at the code
in source line 403, there is a high probability that either
the pointer access for <quote>tp</quote> was messed up, or the array
access was out of bounds.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>line 52:</term>
<listitem>
<para>The pointer looks suspicious, but happens to be a valid
address.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>line 56:</term>
<listitem>
<para>However, it obviously points to garbage, so we have
found our error! (For those unfamiliar with that particular
piece of code: <literal>tp-&gt;t_line</literal>
refers to the line discipline of the console device here,
which must be a rather small integer number.)</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Post-mortem Analysis of a Dump</title>
<para>What do you do if a kernel dumped core but you did not expect
it, and it is therefore not compiled using <command>config
-g</command>? Not everything is lost here. Do not panic!</para>
<para>Of course, you still need to enable crash dumps. See above on
the options you have to specify in order to do this.</para>
<para>Go to your kernel compile directory, and edit the line
containing <literal>COPTFLAGS?=-O</literal>. Add the
<option>-g</option> option there (but <emphasis>do not</emphasis>
change anything on the level of optimization). If you do already
know roughly the probable location of the failing piece of code
(e.g., the <emphasis remap=tt>pcvt</emphasis> driver in the example
above), remove all the object files for this code. Rebuild the
kernel. Due to the time stamp change on the Makefile, there will be
some other object files rebuild, for example
<filename>trap.o</filename>. With a bit of luck, the added
<option>-g</option> option will not change anything for the
generated code, so you will finally get a new kernel with similar
code to the faulting one but some debugging symbols. You should at
least verify the old and new sizes with the
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>size</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> command. If there is a mismatch, you
probably need to give up here.</para>
<para>Go and examine the dump as described above. The debugging
symbols might be incomplete for some places, as can be seen in the
stack trace in the example above where some functions are displayed
without line numbers and argument lists. If you need more debugging
symbols, remove the appropriate object files and repeat the
<command>kgdb</command> session until you know
enough.</para>
<para>All this is not guaranteed to work, but it will do it fine in
most cases.</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>On-line Kernel Debugging Using DDB</title>
<para>While <command>kgdb</command> as an offline debugger
provides a very high level of user interface, there are some things
it cannot do. The most important ones being breakpointing and
single-stepping kernel code.</para>
<para>If you need to do low-level debugging on your kernel, there is
an on-line debugger available called DDB. It allows to setting
breakpoints, single-steping kernel functions, examining and changing
kernel variables, etc. However, it cannot access kernel source
files, and only has access to the global and static symbols, not to
the full debug information like <command>kgdb</command>.</para>
<para>To configure your kernel to include DDB, add the option line
<informalexample>
<screen> options DDB</screen>
</informalexample> to your config file, and rebuild. (See <xref
linkend="kernelconfig"
remap="Kernel Configuration"> for details on configuring the
FreeBSD kernel.</para>
<note>
<para>Note that if you have an older version of the boot blocks,
your debugger symbols might not be loaded at all. Update the boot
blocks; the recent ones load the DDB symbols
automagically.)</para>
</note>
<para>Once your DDB kernel is running, there are several ways to enter
DDB. The first, and earliest way is to type the boot flag
<option>-d</option> right at the boot prompt. The kernel will start
up in debug mode and enter DDB prior to any device probing. Hence
you can even debug the device probe/attach functions.</para>
<para>The second scenario is a hot-key on the keyboard, usually
Ctrl-Alt-ESC. For syscons, this can be remapped; some of the
distributed maps do this, so watch out. There is an option available
for serial consoles that allows the use of a serial line BREAK on
the console line to enter DDB (<literal>options
BREAK_TO_DEBUGGER</literal> in the kernel config file). It is
not the default since there are a lot of crappy serial adapters
around that gratuitously generate a BREAK condition, for example
when pulling the cable.</para>
<para>The third way is that any panic condition will branch to DDB if
the kernel is configured to use it. For this reason, it is not
wise to configure a kernel with DDB for a machine running
unattended.</para>
<para>The DDB commands roughly resemble some <command>gdb</command> commands. The first thing you probably
need to do is to set a breakpoint:
<informalexample>
<screen> b function-name b address</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Numbers are taken hexadecimal by default, but to make them
distinct from symbol names; hexadecimal numbers starting with the
letters <emphasis remap=tt>a</emphasis>-<emphasis
remap=tt>f</emphasis> need to be preceded with
<literal>0x</literal> (this is optional for other numbers). Simple
expressions are allowed, for example: <literal>function-name +
0x103</literal>.</para>
<para>To continue the operation of an interrupted kernel, simply type
<informalexample>
<screen> c</screen>
</informalexample> To get a stack trace, use
<informalexample>
<screen> trace</screen>
</informalexample></para>
<note>
<para>Note that when entering DDB via a hot-key, the kernel is
currently servicing an interrupt, so the stack trace might be not
of much use for you.</para>
</note>
<para>If you want to remove a breakpoint, use
<informalexample>
<screen> del del address-expression</screen>
</informalexample> The first form will be accepted immediately after
a breakpoint hit, and deletes the current breakpoint. The second
form can remove any breakpoint, but you need to specify the exact
address; this can be obtained from
<informalexample>
<screen> show b</screen>
</informalexample> To single-step the kernel, try
<informalexample>
<screen> s</screen>
</informalexample> This will step into functions, but you can make
DDB trace them until the matching return statement is reached by
<informalexample>
<screen> n</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<note>
<para>This is different from <command>gdb</command>'s `next'
statement; it is like <command>gdb</command>'s `finish'.</para>
</note>
<para>To examine data from memory, use (for example):
<informalexample>
<screen> x/wx 0xf0133fe0,40 x/hd db_symtab_space x/bc termbuf,10
x/s stringbuf</screen>
</informalexample> for word/halfword/byte access, and
hexadecimal/decimal/character/ string display. The number after the
comma is the object count. To display the next 0x10 items, simply
use
<informalexample>
<screen> x ,10</screen>
</informalexample> Similarly, use
<informalexample>
<screen> x/ia foofunc,10</screen>
</informalexample> to disassemble the first 0x10 instructions of
<emphasis remap=tt>foofunc</emphasis>, and display them along with
their offset from the beginning of <emphasis
remap=tt>foofunc</emphasis>.</para>
<para>To modify memory, use the write command:
<informalexample>
<screen> w/b termbuf 0xa 0xb 0 w/w 0xf0010030 0 0</screen>
</informalexample> The command modifier (<emphasis
remap=tt>b</emphasis>/<emphasis remap=tt>h</emphasis>/<emphasis
remap=tt>w</emphasis>) specifies the size of the data to be
written, the first following expression is the address to write to
and the remainder is interpreted as data to write to successive
memory locations.</para>
<para>If you need to know the current registers, use
<informalexample>
<screen> show reg</screen>
</informalexample> Alternatively, you can display a single register
value by e.g.
<informalexample>
<screen> p $eax</screen>
</informalexample> and modify it by
<informalexample>
<screen> set $eax new-value</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Should you need to call some kernel functions from DDB, simply
say
<informalexample>
<screen> call func(arg1, arg2, ...)</screen>
</informalexample> The return value will be printed.</para>
<para>For a <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ps</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> style summary of all running
processes, use
<informalexample>
<screen> ps</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Now you have now examined why your kernel failed, and you wish
to reboot. Remember that, depending on the severity of previous
malfunctioning, not all parts of the kernel might still be working
as expected. Perform one of the following actions to shut down and
reboot your system:
<informalexample>
<screen> call diediedie()</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>This will cause your kernel to dump core and reboot, so you can
later analyze the core on a higher level with kgdb. This command
usually must be followed by another <command>continue</command> statement. There is now an alias for
this: <command>panic</command>.</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> call boot(0)</screen>
</informalexample> might be a good way to cleanly shut down the
running system, <function>sync()</function> all disks, and finally
reboot. As long as the disk and file system interfaces of the
kernel are not damaged, this might be a good way for an almost clean
shutdown.</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen> call cpu_reset()</screen>
</informalexample> is the final way out of disaster and almost the
same as hitting the Big Red Button.</para>
<para>If you need a short command summary, simply type
<informalexample>
<screen> help</screen>
</informalexample> However, it is highly recommended to have a
printed copy of the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ddb</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> manual page
ready for a debugging session. Remember that it is hard to read the
on-line manual while single-stepping the kernel.</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>On-line Kernel Debugging Using Remote GDB</title>
<para>This feature has been supported since FreeBSD 2.2, and it's
actually a very neat one.</para>
<para>GDB has already supported <emphasis>remote debugging</emphasis>
for a long time. This is done using a very simple protocol along a
serial line. Unlike the other methods described above, you will
need two machines for doing this. One is the host providing the
debugging environment, including all the sources, and a copy of the
kernel binary with all the symbols in it, and the other one is the
target machine that simply runs a similar copy of the very same
kernel (but stripped of the debugging information).</para>
<para>You should configure the kernel in question with <command>config
-g</command>, include <option>DDB</option> into the
configuration, and compile it as usual. This gives a large blurb of
a binary, due to the debugging information. Copy this kernel to the
target machine, strip the debugging symbols off with <command>strip
-x</command>, and boot it using the <option>-d</option> boot
option. Connect the first serial line of the target machine to any
serial line of the debugging host. Now, on the debugging machine,
go to the compile directory of the target kernel, and start gdb:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; gdb -k kernel GDB is free software and you are welcome
to distribute copies of it under certain conditions; type "show
copying" to see the conditions. There is absolutely no warranty
for GDB; type "show warranty" for details. GDB 4.16
(i386-unknown-freebsd), Copyright 1996 Free Software
Foundation, Inc... (kgdb) </screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Initialize the remote debugging session (assuming the first
serial port is being used) by:
<informalexample>
<screen>(kgdb) target remote /dev/cuaa0</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Now, on the target host (the one that entered DDB right before
even starting the device probe), type:
<informalexample>
<screen>Debugger("Boot flags requested debugger") Stopped at
Debugger+0x35: movb $0, edata+0x51bc db&gt; gdb</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>DDB will respond with:
<informalexample>
<screen>Next trap will enter GDB remote protocol mode</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Every time you type <command>gdb</command>, the mode will be toggled between
remote GDB and local DDB. In order to force a next trap
immediately, simply type <command>s</command> (step). Your hosting GDB will now
gain control over the target kernel:
<informalexample>
<screen>Remote debugging using /dev/cuaa0 Debugger (msg=0xf01b0383
"Boot flags requested debugger") at
../../i386/i386/db_interface.c:257 (kgdb) </screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>You can use this session almost as any other GDB session,
including full access to the source, running it in gud-mode inside
an Emacs window (which gives you an automatic source code display in
another Emacs window) etc.</para>
<para>Remote GDB can also be used to debug LKMs. First build the LKM
with debugging symbols:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; cd /usr/src/lkm/linux &prompt.root; make clean; make
COPTS=-g</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Then install this version of the module on the target machine,
load it and use <command>modstat</command> to find out
where it was loaded:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; linux &prompt.root; modstat Type Id Off Loadaddr Size Info
Rev Module Name EXEC 0 4 f5109000 001c f510f010 1
linux_mod</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Take the load address of the module and add 0x20 (probably to
account for the a.out header). This is the address that the module
code was relocated to. Use the <command>add-symbol-file</command> command in GDB to tell the
debugger about the module:
<informalexample>
<screen>(kgdb) add-symbol-file /usr/src/lkm/linux/linux_mod.o
0xf5109020 add symbol table from file
"/usr/src/lkm/linux/linux_mod.o" at text_addr = 0xf5109020? (y
or n) y (kgdb)</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>You now have access to all the symbols in the LKM.</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Debugging a Console Driver</title>
<para>Since you need a console driver to run DDB on, things are more
complicated if the console driver itself is failing. You might
remember the use of a serial console (either with modified boot
blocks, or by specifying <emphasis
remap=tt><option>-h</option></emphasis> at the <emphasis
remap=tt>Boot:</emphasis> prompt), and hook up a standard terminal
onto your first serial port. DDB works on any configured console
driver, of course also on a serial console.</para>
</sect1>
</chapter>
<chapter
id="linuxemu">
<title>Linux Emulation</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.handy; and &a.rich;</emphasis></para>
<sect1>
<title>How to Install the Linux Emulator</title>
<para>Linux emulation in FreeBSD has reached a point where it is
possible to run a large fraction of Linux binaries in both a.out and
ELF format. The linux emulation in the 2.1-STABLE branch is capable
of running Linux DOOM and Mathematica; the version present in
FreeBSD-2.2-RELEASE is vastly more capable and runs all these as
well as Quake, Abuse, IDL, netrek for Linux and a whole host of
other programs.</para>
<para>There are some Linux-specific operating system features that are
not supported on FreeBSD. Linux binaries will not work on FreeBSD
if they use the Linux <filename>/proc</filename> filesystem (which
is different from the optional FreeBSD <filename>/proc</filename>
filesystem) or i386-specific calls, such as enabling virtual 8086
mode.</para>
<para>To tell whether your kernel is configured for Linux
compatibility simply run any Linux binary. If it prints the error
message
<informalexample>
<screen>linux-executable: Exec format error. Wrong
Architecture.</screen>
</informalexample> then you do not have linux compatibility support
and you need to configure and install a new kernel.</para>
<para>Depending on which version of FreeBSD you are running, how you
get Linux-emulation up will vary slightly:</para>
<sect2>
<title>Installing Linux Emulation in 2.1-STABLE</title>
<para>The <filename>GENERIC</filename> kernel in 2.1-STABLE is not
configured for linux compatibility so you must reconfigure your
kernel for it. There are two ways to do this: 1. linking the
emulator statically in the kernel itself and 2. configuring your
kernel to dynamically load the linux loadable kernel module
(LKM).</para>
<para>To enable the emulator, add the following to your
configuration file (c.f.
<filename>/sys/i386/conf/LINT</filename>):
<informalexample>
<screen>options COMPAT_LINUX</screen>
</informalexample> If you want to run doom or other applications
that need shared memory, also add the following.
<informalexample>
<screen>options SYSVSHM</screen>
</informalexample> The linux system calls require 4.3BSD system
call compatibility. So make sure you have the following.
<informalexample>
<screen>options "COMPAT_43"</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>If you prefer to statically link the emulator in the kernel
rather than use the loadable kernel module (LKM), then add
<informalexample>
<screen>options LINUX</screen>
</informalexample> Then run config and install the new kernel as
described in the
<xref linkend="kernelconfig" remap="kernel configuration">
section.</para>
<para>If you decide to use the LKM you must also install the
loadable module. A mismatch of versions between the kernel and
loadable module can cause the kernel to crash, so the safest thing
to do is to reinstall the LKM when you install the kernel.
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; cd /usr/src/lkm/linux &prompt.root; make all install</screen>
</informalexample> Once you have installed the kernel and the LKM,
you can invoke `linux' as root to load the LKM.
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; linux Linux emulator installed Module loaded as ID 0
&prompt.root;</screen>
</informalexample> To see whether the LKM is loaded, run
`modstat'.
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; modstat Type Id Off Loadaddr Size Info Rev
Module Name EXEC 0 3 f0baf000 0018 f0bb4000 1
linux_emulator &prompt.user;</screen>
</informalexample> You can cause the LKM to be loaded when the
system boots in either of two ways. In FreeBSD 2.2.1-RELEASE and
2.1-STABLE enable it in <filename>/etc/sysconfig</filename>
<informalexample>
<screen>linux=YES</screen>
</informalexample> by changing it from NO to YES. FreeBSD 2.1
RELEASE and earlier do not have such a line and on those you will
need to edit /etc/rc.local to add the following line.
<informalexample>
<screen>linux</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Installing Linux Emulation in 2.2.2-RELEASE and later</title>
<para>It is no longer necessary to specify <literal>options LINUX</literal> or
<literal>options COMPAT_LINUX</literal>. Linux emulation is done with an LKM
(<quote>Loadable Kernel Module</quote>) so it can be installed on the fly
without having to reboot. You will need the following things in
your startup files, however:
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para> In <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>, you need the
following line:
<informalexample>
<screen>linux_enable=YES</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> This, in turn, triggers the following action in
<filename>/etc/rc.i386</filename>:
<informalexample>
<screen># Start the Linux binary emulation if requested.
if [ "X${linux_enable}" = X"YES" ]; then echo -n '
linux'; linux &gt; /dev/null 2&gt;&amp;1
fi</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
</para>
<para>If you want to verify it is running, modstat will do that:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; modstat Type Id Off Loadaddr Size Info Rev
Module Name EXEC 0 4 f09e6000 001c f09ec010 1
linux_mod &prompt.user;</screen>
</informalexample> However, there have been reports that this
fails on some 2.2-RELEASE and later systems. If for some reason
you cannot load the linux LKM, then statically link the emulator
in the kernel by adding
<informalexample>
<screen>options LINUX</screen>
</informalexample> to your kernel config file. Then run config
and install the new kernel as described in the <xref
linkend="kernelconfig"
remap="kernel configuration"> section.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Installing Linux Runtime Libraries</title>
<sect3>
<title>Installing using the linux_lib port</title>
<para>Most linux applications use shared libraries, so you are
still not done until you install the shared libraries. It is
possible to do this by hand, however, it is vastly simpler to
just grab the linux_lib port:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports-current/emulators/linux_lib &prompt.root; make all
install</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>and you should have a working linux emulator. Legend (and
the mail archives :-) seems to hold that Linux emulation works
best with linux binaries linked against the ZMAGIC libraries;
QMAGIC libraries (such as those used in Slackware V2.0) may tend
to give the Linuxulator heartburn. As of this writing (March
1996) ELF emulation is still in the formulative stages but seems
to work pretty well. Also, expect some programs to complain
about incorrect minor versions. In general this does not seem
to be a problem.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Installing libraries manually</title>
<para>If you do not have the <quote>ports</quote> distribution, you can
install the libraries by hand instead. You will need the Linux
shared libraries that the program depends on and the runtime
linker. Also, you will need to create a "shadow root"
directory, <filename>/compat/linux</filename>, for Linux
libraries on your FreeBSD system. Any shared libraries opened
by Linux programs run under FreeBSD will look in this tree
first. So, if a Linux program loads, for example,
<filename>/lib/libc.so</filename>, FreeBSD will first try to
open <filename>/compat/linux/lib/libc.so</filename>, and if that
does not exist then it will try
<filename>/lib/libc.so</filename>. Shared libraries should be
installed in the shadow tree
<filename>/compat/linux/lib</filename> rather than the paths
that the Linux <filename>ld.so</filename> reports.</para>
<para>FreeBSD-2.2-RELEASE and later works slightly differently
with respect to /compat/linux. On -CURRENT, all files, not just
libraries, are searched for from the <quote>shadow root</quote>
<filename>/compat/linux</filename>.</para>
<para>Generally, you will need to look for the shared libraries
that Linux binaries depend on only the first few times that you
install a Linux program on your FreeBSD system. After a while,
you will have a sufficient set of Linux shared libraries on your
system to be able to run newly imported Linux binaries without
any extra work.</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>How to install additional shared libraries</title>
<para>What if you install the linux_lib port and your application
still complains about missing shared libraries? How do you know
which shared libraries Linux binaries need, and where to get
them? Basically, there are 2 possibilities (when following these
instructions: you will need to be root on your FreeBSD system to
do the necessary installation steps).</para>
<para>If you have access to a Linux system, see what shared
libraries it needs, and copy them to your FreeBSD system.
Example: you have just ftp'ed the Linux binary of Doom. Put it
on the Linux system you have access to, and check which shared
libraries it needs by running `ldd linuxxdoom':</para>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; ldd linuxxdoom libXt.so.3 (DLL Jump 3.1) =&gt;
/usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3.1.0 libX11.so.3 (DLL Jump 3.1) =&gt;
/usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3.1.0 libc.so.4 (DLL Jump 4.5pl26)
=&gt; /lib/libc.so.4.6.29</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>You would need to get all the files from the last column,
and put them under <filename>/compat/linux</filename>, with the
names in the first column as symbolic links pointing to them.
This means you eventually have these files on your FreeBSD
system:
<informalexample>
<screen>/compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3.1.0
/compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3 -&gt; libXt.so.3.1.0
/compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3.1.0
/compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3 -&gt; libX11.so.3.1.0
/compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.29 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4
-&gt; libc.so.4.6.29</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<note>
<para>Note that if you already have a Linux shared library with
a matching major revision number to the first column of the
'ldd' output, you will not need to copy the file named in the
last column to your system, the one you already have should
work. It is advisable to copy the shared library anyway if it
is a newer version, though. You can remove the old one, as
long as you make the symbolic link point to the new one. So,
if you have these libraries on your system:
<informalexample>
<screen>/compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.27
/compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -&gt; libc.so.4.6.27</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>and you find a new binary that claims to require a later
version according to the output of ldd:
<informalexample>
<screen>libc.so.4 (DLL Jump 4.5pl26) -&gt;
libc.so.4.6.29</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>If it is only one or two versions out of date in the in
the trailing digit then do not worry about copying
<filename>/lib/libc.so.4.6.29</filename> too, because the
program should work fine with the slightly older version.
However, if you like you can decide to replace the
<filename>libc.so</filename> anyway, and that should leave you
with:
<informalexample>
<screen>/compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.29
/compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -&gt; libc.so.4.6.29</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</note>
<note>
<para>The symbolic link mechanism is <emphasis>only</emphasis>
needed for Linux binaries. The FreeBSD runtime linker takes
care of looking for matching major revision numbers itself and
you do not need to worry about it.</para>
</note>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Configuring the <filename>ld.so</filename> -- for FreeBSD
2.2-RELEASE only</title>
<para>This section applies only to FreeBSD 2.2-RELEASE and later.
Those running 2.1-STABLE should skip this section.</para>
<para>Finally, if you run FreeBSD 2.2-RELEASE you must make sure
that you have the Linux runtime linker and its config files on
your system. You should copy these files from the Linux system
to their appropriate place on your FreeBSD system (to the
<filename>/compat/linux</filename> tree):
<informalexample>
<screen>/compat/linux/lib/ld.so
/compat/linux/etc/ld.so.config</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>If you do not have access to a Linux system, you should get
the extra files you need from various ftp sites. Information on
where to look for the various files is appended below. For now,
let us assume you know where to get the files.</para>
<para>Retrieve the following files (all from the same ftp site to
avoid any version mismatches), and install them under
<filename>/compat/linux</filename> (i.e.
<filename>/foo/bar</filename> is installed as
<filename>/compat/linux/foo/bar</filename>):
<informalexample>
<screen>/sbin/ldconfig /usr/bin/ldd /lib/libc.so.x.y.z
/lib/ld.so</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>ldconfig and ldd do not necessarily need to be under
<filename>/compat/linux</filename>; you can install them
elsewhere in the system too. Just make sure they do not conflict
with their FreeBSD counterparts. A good idea would be to install
them in <filename>/usr/local/bin</filename> as ldconfig-linux
and ldd-linux.</para>
<para>Create the file
<filename>/compat/linux/etc/ld.so.conf</filename>, containing
the directories in which the Linux runtime linker should look
for shared libs. It is a plain text file, containing a directory
name on each line. <filename>/lib</filename> and
<filename>/usr/lib</filename> are standard, you could add the
following:
<informalexample>
<screen>/usr/X11/lib /usr/local/lib</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>When a linux binary opens a library such as
<filename>/lib/libc.so</filename> the emulator maps the name to
<filename>/compat/linux/lib/libc.so</filename> internally. All
linux libraries should be installed under /compat/linux (e.g.
<filename>/compat/linux/lib/libc.so</filename>,
<filename>/compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libX11.so</filename>, etc.)
in order for the emulator to find them.</para>
<para>Those running FreeBSD 2.2-RELEASE should run the Linux
ldconfig program.
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root cd /compat/linux/lib &prompt.root; /compat/linux/sbin/ldconfig
</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Ldconfig is statically linked, so it does not need any
shared libraries to run. It creates the file
<filename>/compat/linux/etc/ld.so.cache</filename> which
contains the names of all the shared libraries and should be
rerun to recreate this file whenever you install additional
shared libraries.</para>
<para>On 2.1-STABLE do not install
<filename>/compat/linux/etc/ld.so.cache</filename> or run
ldconfig; in 2.1-STABLE the syscalls are implemented differently
and ldconfig is not needed or used.</para>
<para>You should now be set up for Linux binaries which only need
a shared libc. You can test this by running the Linux ldd on
itself. Supposing that you have it installed as ldd-linux, it
should produce something like:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; ldd-linux `which ldd-linux` libc.so.4 (DLL Jump
4.5pl26) =&gt; /lib/libc.so.4.6.29</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>This being done, you are ready to install new Linux
binaries. Whenever you install a new Linux program, you should
check if it needs shared libraries, and if so, whether you have
them installed in the <filename>/compat/linux</filename> tree.
To do this, you run the Linux version ldd on the new program,
and watch its output. ldd (see also the manual page for <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ldd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>)
will print a list of shared libraries that the program depends
on, in the form majorname (jumpversion) =&gt; fullname.</para>
<para>If it prints "not found" instead of fullname it means that
you need an extra library. The library needed is shown in
majorname and will be of the form libXXXX.so.N. You will need to
find a libXXXX.so.N.mm on a Linux ftp site, and install it on
your system. The XXXX (name) and N (major revision number)
should match; the minor number(s) mm are less important, though
it is advised to take the most recent version.</para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Configuring the host name resolver</title>
<para>If DNS does not work or you get the messages
<informalexample>
<screen>resolv+: "bind" is an invalid keyword resolv+: "hosts"
is an invalid keyword</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>then you need to configure a
<filename>/compat/linux/etc/host.conf</filename> file containing:
<informalexample>
<screen>order hosts, bind multi on</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>where the order here specifies that
<filename>/etc/hosts</filename> is searched first and DNS is
searched second. When
<filename>/compat/linux/etc/host.conf</filename> is not installed
linux applications find FreeBSD's
<filename>/etc/host.conf</filename> and complain about the
incompatible FreeBSD syntax. You should remove `bind,' if you
have not configured a name-server using the
<filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> file.</para>
<para>Lastly, those who run 2.1-STABLE need to set an the
RESOLV_HOST_CONF environment variable so that applications will
know how to search the host tables. If you run FreeBSD
2.2-RELEASE, you can skip this. For the
<filename>/bin/csh</filename> shell use:
<informalexample>
<screen>setenv RESOLV_HOST_CONF
/compat/linux/etc/host.conf</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>For <filename>/bin/sh</filename> use:
<informalexample>
<screen>RESOLV_HOST_CONF=/compat/linux/etc/host.conf; export
RESOLV_HOST_CONF</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Finding the necessary files</title>
<note>
<para>The information below is valid as of the time this document
was written, but certain details such as names of ftp sites,
directories and distribution names may have changed by the time
you read this.</para>
</note>
<para>Linux is distributed by several groups that make their own set
of binaries that they distribute. Each distribution has its own
name, like <quote>Slackware</quote> or <quote>Yggdrasil</quote>. The distributions are
available on a lot of ftp sites. Sometimes the files are unpacked,
and you can get the individual files you need, but mostly they are
stored in distribution sets, usually consisting of subdirectories
with gzipped tar files in them. The primary ftp sites for the
distributions are:
<literallayout>sunsite.unc.edu:/pub/Linux/distributions
tsx-11.mit.edu:/pub/linux/distributions</literallayout>
</para>
<para>Some European mirrors:
<literallayout>ftp.luth.se:/pub/linux/distributions
ftp.demon.co.uk:/pub/linux/distributions
src.doc.ic.ac.uk:/packages/linux/distributions</literallayout>
</para>
<para>For simplicity, let us concentrate on Slackware here. This
distribution consists of a number of subdirectories, containing
separate packages. Normally, they are controlled by an install
program, but you can retrieve files <quote>by hand</quote> too. First of all,
you will need to look in the <filename>contents</filename> subdir of the
distribution. You will find a lot of small text files here
describing the contents of the separate packages. The fastest way
to look something up is to retrieve all the files in the contents
subdirectory, and grep through them for the file you need. Here is
an example of a list of files that you might need, and in which
contents-file you will find it by grepping through them:
<table>
<title></title>
<tgroup cols="2">
<tbody>
<row><entry>Library </entry><entry>Package </entry></row>
<row><entry><filename>ld.so</filename> </entry><entry>ldso
</entry></row>
<row><entry><filename>ldconfig</filename>
</entry><entry>ldso </entry></row>
<row><entry><filename>ldd</filename> </entry><entry>ldso
</entry></row>
<row><entry><filename>libc.so.4</filename>
</entry><entry>shlibs </entry></row>
<row><entry><filename>libX11.so.6.0</filename>
</entry><entry>xf_lib
</entry></row>
<row><entry><filename>libXt.so.6.0</filename>
</entry><entry>xf_lib
</entry></row>
<row><entry><filename>libX11.so.3</filename>
</entry><entry>oldlibs
</entry></row>
<row><entry><filename>libXt.so.3</filename>
</entry><entry>oldlibs
</entry></row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
</para>
<para>So, in this case, you will need the packages ldso, shlibs,
xf_lib and oldlibs. In each of the contents-files for these
packages, look for a line saying <literal>PACKAGE LOCATION</literal>, it will
tell you on which <quote>disk</quote> the package is, in our case it will tell
us in which subdirectory we need to look. For our example, we
would find the following locations:
<table>
<title></title>
<tgroup cols="2">
<tbody>
<row><entry>Package </entry><entry>Location </entry></row>
<row><entry>ldso </entry><entry>diska2 </entry></row>
<row><entry>shlibs </entry><entry>diska2 </entry></row>
<row><entry>oldlibs </entry><entry>diskx6 </entry></row>
<row><entry>xf_lib </entry><entry>diskx9 </entry></row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
</para>
<para>The locations called <quote>disk<replaceable>XX</replaceable></quote> refer to the <filename>slakware/<replaceable>XX</replaceable></filename>
subdirectories of the distribution, others may be found in the
<filename>contrib</filename> subdirectory. In this case, we
could now retrieve the packages we need by retrieving the
following files (relative to the root of the Slackware
distribution tree):
<informalexample>
<screen>slakware/a2/ldso.tgz slakware/a2/shlibs.tgz
slakware/x6/oldlibs/tgz slakware/x9/xf_lib.tgz</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>Extract the files from these gzipped tarfiles in your
<filename>/compat/linux</filename> directory (possibly omitting or
afterwards removing files you do not need), and you are
done.</para>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>See also:</emphasis>
<literallayout>ftp.freebsd.org:pub/FreeBSD/2.0.5-RELEASE/xperimnt/linux-emu/README /usr/src/sys/i386/ibcs2/README.iBCS2</literallayout>
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="mathematica">
<title>How to Install Mathematica on FreeBSD</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.rich; and
&a.chuck;</emphasis></para>
<para>This document shows how to install the Linux binary distribution
of Mathematica 2.2 on FreeBSD 2.1.</para>
<para>Mathematica supports Linux but not FreeBSD as it stands. So
once you have configured your system for Linux compatibility you
have most of what you need to run Mathematica.</para>
<para>For those who already have the student edition of Mathematica
for DOS the cost of upgrading to the Linux version at the time this
was written, March 1996, was &#36;45.00. It can be ordered directly
from Wolfram at (217) 398-6500 and paid for by credit card.</para>
<sect2>
<title>Unpacking the Mathematica distribution</title>
<para>The binaries are currently distributed by Wolfram on CDROM.
The CDROM has about a dozen tar files, each of which is a binary
distribution for one of the supported architectures. The one for
Linux is named <filename>LINUX.TAR</filename>. You can, for
example, unpack this into
<filename>/usr/local/Mathematica</filename>:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; cd /usr/local &prompt.root; mkdir Mathematica &prompt.root; cd Mathematica &prompt.root;
tar -xvf /cdrom/LINUX.TAR</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Obtaining your Mathematica Password</title>
<para>Before you can run Mathematica you will have to obtain a
password from Wolfram that corresponds to your `machine
ID.'</para>
<para>Once you have installed the linux compatibility runtime
libraries and unpacked the mathematica you can obtain the `machine
ID' by running the program `mathinfo' in the Install directory.
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; cd /usr/local/Mathematica/Install &prompt.root; mathinfo LINUX:
'ioctl' fd=5, typ=0x89(), num=0x27 not implemented
richc.isdn.bcm.tmc.edu 9845-03452-90255 &prompt.root;</screen>
</informalexample> So, for example, the `machine ID' of `richc' is
`9845-03452-90255'. You can ignore the message about the ioctl
that is not implemented. It will not prevent Mathematica from
running in any way and you can safely ignore it, though you will
see the message every time you run Mathematica.</para>
<para>When you register with Wolfram, either by email, phone or fax,
you will give them the 'machine ID' and they will respond with a
corresponding password consisting of groups of numbers. You need
to add them both along with the machine name and license number in
your mathpass file.</para>
<para>You can do this by invoking:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.root; cd /usr/local/Mathematica/Install &prompt.root;
math.install</screen>
</informalexample> It will ask you to enter your license number
and the Wolfram supplied password. If you get them mixed up or
for some reason the math.install fails, that is OK; you can simply
edit the file 'mathpass' in this same directory to correct the
info manually.</para>
<para>After getting past the password, math.install will ask you if
you accept the install defaults provided, or if you want to use
your own. If you are like us and distrust all install programs,
you probably want to specify the actual directories. Beware.
Although the math.install program asks you to specify directories,
it will not create them for you, so you should perhaps have a
second window open with another shell so that you can create them
before you give them to the install program. Or, if it fails, you
can create the directories and then restart the math.install
program. The directories we chose to create beforehand and
specify to math.install were:
<informalexample>
<screen>/usr/local/Mathematica/bin for binaries
/usr/local/Mathematica/man/man1 for man pages
/usr/local/Mathematica/lib/X11 for the XKeysymb
file</screen>
</informalexample> You can also tell it to use
<filename>/tmp/math.record</filename> for the system record file,
where it puts logs of sessions. After this math.install will
continue on to unpacking things and placing everything where it
should go.</para>
<para>The Mathematica Notebook feature is included separately, as
the X Front End, and you have to install it separately. To get the
X Front End stuff correctly installed, cd into the
<filename>/usr/local/Mathematica/FrontEnd</filename> directory and
execute the ./xfe.install shell script. You will have to tell it
where to put things, but you do not have to create any directories
because it will use the same directories that had been created for
math.install. When it finishes, there should be a new shell script
in <filename>/usr/local/Mathematica/bin</filename> called
<filename>mathematica</filename>.</para>
<para>Lastly, you need to modify each of the shell scripts that
Mathematica has installed. At the beginning of every shell script
in <filename>/usr/local/Mathematica/bin</filename> add the
following line:
<informalexample>
<screen>XKEYSYMDB=/usr/local/Mathematica/lib/X11/XKeysymDB;
export XKEYSYMDB</screen>
</informalexample> This tells Mathematica were to find its own
version of the key mapping file <filename>XKeysymDB</filename>.
Without this you will get pages of error messages about missing
key mappings.</para>
<para>On 2.1-STABLE you need to add the following as well:
<informalexample>
<screen>RESOLV_HOST_CONF=/compat/linux/etc/host.conf; export
RESOLV_HOST_CONF</screen>
</informalexample> This tells Mathematica to use the linux version
of host.conf. This file has a different syntax from FreeBSD's
host.conf, so you will get an error message about
<filename>/etc/host.conf</filename> if you leave this out.</para>
<para>You might also want to modify your
<filename>/etc/manpath.config</filename> file to read the new man
directory, and you may need to edit your
<filename>~/.cshrc</filename> file to add
<filename>/usr/local/Mathematica/bin</filename> to your
path.</para>
<para>That is about all it takes. With this you should be able to
type <command>mathematica</command> and get a really slick looking Mathematica
Notebook screen up. Mathematica has included the Motif user
interfaces, but it is compiled in statically, so you do not need
the Motif libraries. Good luck doing this yourself!</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Bugs</title>
<para>The Notebook front end is known to hang sometimes when reading
notebook files with an error messages similar to:
<informalexample>
<screen>File .../Untitled-1.mb appears to be broken for
OMPR.257.0</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
<para>We have not found the cause for this, but it only affects the
Notebook's X Window front end, not the mathematica engine itself.
So the command line interface invoked by 'math' is unaffected by
this bug.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Acknowledgments</title>
<para>A well-deserved thanks should go to &a.sos; and &a.peter; who
made linux emulation what it is today, and Michael Smith who drove
these two guys like dogs to get it to the point where it runs
Linux binaries better than linux! :-)
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
</chapter>
<chapter>
<title>FreeBSD Internals</title>
<sect1
id="booting">
<title>The FreeBSD Booting Process</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.phk;. v1.1, April
26th.</emphasis></para>
<para>Booting FreeBSD is essentially a three step process: load the
kernel, determine the root filesystem and initialize user-land
things. This leads to some interesting possibilities shown
below.</para>
<sect2>
<title>Loading a kernel</title>
<para>We presently have three basic mechanisms for loading the
kernel as described below: they all pass some information to the
kernel to help the kernel decide what to do next.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>Biosboot</term>
<listitem>
<para>Biosboot is our <quote>bootblocks</quote>. It consists of two
files which will be installed in the first 8Kbytes of the
floppy or hard-disk slice to be booted from.</para>
<para>Biosboot can load a kernel from a FreeBSD
filesystem.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Dosboot</term>
<listitem>
<para>Dosboot was written by DI. Christian Gusenbauer, and
is unfortunately at this time one of the few pieces of
code that will not compile under FreeBSD itself because it
is written for Microsoft compilers.</para>
<para>Dosboot will boot the kernel from a MS-DOS file or
from a FreeBSD filesystem partition on the disk. It
attempts to negotiate with the various and strange kinds
of memory manglers that lurk in high memory on MS/DOS
systems and usually wins them for its case.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Netboot</term>
<listitem>
<para>Netboot will try to find a supported Ethernet card,
and use BOOTP, TFTP and NFS to find a kernel file to
boot.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Determine the root filesystem</title>
<para>Once the kernel is loaded and the boot-code jumps to it, the
kernel will initialize itself, trying to determine what hardware
is present and so on; it then needs to find a root
filesystem.</para>
<para>Presently we support the following types of root
filesystems:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>UFS</term>
<listitem>
<para>This is the most normal type of root filesystem. It
can reside on a floppy or on hard disk.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>MSDOS</term>
<listitem>
<para>While this is technically possible, it is not
particular useful because of the <acronym>FAT</acronym> filesystem's
inability to deal with links, device nodes and other such
<quote>UNIXisms</quote>.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>MFS</term>
<listitem>
<para>This is actually a UFS filesystem which has been
compiled into the kernel. That means that the kernel does
not really need any hard disks, floppies or other hardware
to function.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>CD9660</term>
<listitem>
<para>This is for using a CD-ROM as root filesystem.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>NFS</term>
<listitem>
<para>This is for using a fileserver as root filesystem,
basically making it a diskless machine.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Initialize user-land things</title>
<para>To get the user-land going, the kernel, when it has finished
initialization, will create a process with <literal>pid ==
1</literal> and execute a program on the root filesystem; this
program is normally <filename>/sbin/init</filename>.</para>
<para>You can substitute any program for
<filename>/sbin/init</filename>, as long as you keep in mind
that:</para>
<para>there is no stdin/out/err unless you open it yourself. If you
exit, the machine panics. Signal handling is special for
<literal>pid == 1</literal>.</para>
<para>An example of this is the
<filename>/stand/sysinstall</filename> program on the
installation floppy.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Interesting combinations</title>
<para>Boot a kernel with a MFS in it with a special
<filename>/sbin/init</filename> which...
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>A -- Using DOS</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>mounts your <filename>C:</filename> as
<filename>/C:</filename></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Attaches <filename>C:/freebsd.fs</filename> on
<filename>/dev/vn0</filename></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>mounts <filename>/dev/vn0</filename> as
<filename>/rootfs</filename></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>makes symlinks<!-- <br> -->
<filename>/rootfs/bin</filename> -&gt;
<filename>/bin</filename><!-- <br> -->
<filename>/rootfs/etc</filename> -&gt;
<filename>/etc</filename><!-- <br> -->
<filename>/rootfs/sbin</filename> -&gt;
<filename>/sbin</filename><!-- <br> --> (etc...)<!--
<br> --></para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>Now you are running FreeBSD without repartitioning
your hard disk...</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>B -- Using NFS</term>
<listitem>
<para>NFS mounts your
<filename>server:~you/FreeBSD</filename> as
<filename>/nfs</filename>, chroots to
<filename>/nfs</filename> and executes
<filename>/sbin/init</filename> there</para>
<para>Now you are running FreeBSD diskless, even though you
do not control the NFS server...</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>C -- Start an X-server</term>
<listitem>
<para>Now you have an X-terminal, which is better than that
dingy X-under-windows-so-slow-you-can-see-what-it-does
thing that your boss insist is better than forking out
money on hardware.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>D -- Using a tape</term>
<listitem>
<para>Takes a copy of <filename>/dev/rwd0</filename> and
writes it to a remote tape station or fileserver.</para>
<para>Now you finally get that backup you should have made a
year ago...</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>E -- Acts as a firewall/web-server/what do I
know...</term>
<listitem>
<para>This is particularly interesting since you can boot
from a write- protected floppy, but still write to your
root filesystem...</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="memoryuse">
<title>PC Memory Utilization</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.joerg;.<!-- <br> --> 16 Apr
1995.</emphasis></para>
<para><emphasis>A short description of how FreeBSD uses memory on the
i386 platform</emphasis></para>
<para>The boot sector will be loaded at <literal>0:0x7c00</literal>,
and relocates itself immediately to <literal>0x7c0:0</literal>.
(This is nothing magic, just an adjustment for the <emphasis
remap=tt>%cs</emphasis> selector, done by an <emphasis
remap=tt>ljmp</emphasis>.)</para>
<para>It then loads the first 15 sectors at <literal>0x10000</literal>
(segment BOOTSEG in the biosboot Makefile), and sets up the stack to
work below <literal>0x1fff0</literal>. After this, it jumps to the
entry of boot2 within that code. I.e., it jumps over itself and the
(dummy) partition table, and it is going to adjust the %cs
selector---we are still in 16-bit mode there.</para>
<para>boot2 asks for the boot file, and examines the
<filename>a.out</filename> header. It masks the file entry point
(usually <literal>0xf0100000</literal>) by
<literal>0x00ffffff</literal>, and loads the file there. Hence the
usual load point is 1 MB (<literal>0x00100000</literal>). During
load, the boot code toggles back and forth between real and
protected mode, to use the BIOS in real mode.</para>
<para>The boot code itself uses segment selectors
<literal>0x18</literal> and <literal>0x20</literal> for <emphasis
remap=tt>%cs</emphasis> and <filename>%ds/%es</filename> in
protected mode, and <literal>0x28</literal> to jump back into real
mode. The kernel is finally started with <emphasis
remap=tt>%cs</emphasis> <literal>0x08</literal> and
<filename>%ds/%es/%ss</filename> <literal>0x10</literal>, which
refer to dummy descriptors covering the entire address space.</para>
<para>The kernel will be started at its load point. Since it has been
linked for another (high) address, it will have to execute PIC until
the page table and page directory stuff is setup properly, at which
point paging will be enabled and the kernel will finally run at the
address for which it was linked.</para>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.davidg;.<!-- <br> --> 16 Apr
1995.</emphasis></para>
<para>The physical pages immediately following the kernel BSS contain
proc0's page directory, page tables, and upages. Some time later
when the VM system is initialized, the physical memory between
<literal>0x1000-0x9ffff</literal> and the physical memory after the
kernel (text+data+bss+proc0 stuff+other misc) is made available in
the form of general VM pages and added to the global free page
list.</para>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="dma">
<title>DMA: What it Is and How it Works</title>
<para><emphasis>Copyright &copy; 1995,1997 &a.uhclem;, All Rights
Reserved.<!-- <br> --> 10 December 1996. Last Update 8 October
1997.</emphasis></para>
<para>Direct Memory Access (DMA) is a method of allowing data to be
moved from one location to another in a computer without
intervention from the central processor (CPU).</para>
<para>The way that the DMA function is implemented varies between
computer architectures, so this discussion will limit itself to the
implementation and workings of the DMA subsystem on the IBM Personal
Computer (PC), the IBM PC/AT and all of its successors and
clones.</para>
<para>The PC DMA subsystem is based on the Intel 8237 DMA controller.
The 8237 contains four DMA channels that can be programmed
independently and any one of the channels may be active at any
moment. These channels are numbered 0, 1, 2 and 3. Starting with
the PC/AT, IBM added a second 8237 chip, and numbered those channels
4, 5, 6 and 7.</para>
<para>The original DMA controller (0, 1, 2 and 3) moves one byte in
each transfer. The second DMA controller (4, 5, 6, and 7) moves
16-bits from two adjacent memory locations in each transfer, with
the first byte always coming from an even-numbered address. The two
controllers are identical components and the difference in transfer
size is caused by the way the second controller is wired into the
system.</para>
<para>The 8237 has two electrical signals for each channel, named DRQ
and -DACK. There are additional signals with the names HRQ (Hold
Request), HLDA (Hold Acknowledge), -EOP (End of Process), and the
bus control signals -MEMR (Memory Read), -MEMW (Memory Write), -IOR
(I/O Read), and -IOW (I/O Write).</para>
<para>The 8237 DMA is known as a <quote>fly-by</quote> DMA controller. This
means that the data being moved from one location to another does
not pass through the DMA chip and is not stored in the DMA chip.
Subsequently, the DMA can only transfer data between an I/O port and
a memory address, but not between two I/O ports or two memory
locations.</para>
<note>
<para>The 8237 does allow two channels to be connected together to
allow memory-to-memory DMA operations in a
non-<quote>fly-by</quote> mode, but nobody in the PC industry uses
this scarce resource this way since it is faster to move data
between memory locations using the CPU.</para>
</note>
<para>In the PC architecture, each DMA channel is normally activated
only when the hardware that uses a given DMA channel requests a
transfer by asserting the DRQ line for that channel.</para>
<sect2>
<title>A Sample DMA transfer</title>
<para>Here is an example of the steps that occur to cause and
perform a DMA transfer. In this example, the floppy disk
controller (FDC) has just read a byte from a diskette and wants
the DMA to place it in memory at location 0x00123456. The process
begins by the FDC asserting the DRQ2 signal (the DRQ line for DMA
channel 2) to alert the DMA controller.</para>
<para>The DMA controller will note that the DRQ2 signal is asserted.
The DMA controller will then make sure that DMA channel 2 has been
programmed and is unmasked (enabled). The DMA controller also
makes sure that none of the other DMA channels are active or want
to be active and have a higher priority. Once these checks are
complete, the DMA asks the CPU to release the bus so that the DMA
may use the bus. The DMA requests the bus by asserting the HRQ
signal which goes to the CPU.</para>
<para>The CPU detects the HRQ signal, and will complete executing
the current instruction. Once the processor has reached a state
where it can release the bus, it will. Now all of the signals
normally generated by the CPU (-MEMR, -MEMW, -IOR, -IOW and a few
others) are placed in a tri-stated condition (neither high or low)
and then the CPU asserts the HLDA signal which tells the DMA
controller that it is now in charge of the bus. </para>
<para>Depending on the processor, the CPU may be able to execute a
few additional instructions now that it no longer has the bus, but
the CPU will eventually have to wait when it reaches an
instruction that must read something from memory that is not in
the internal processor cache or pipeline.</para>
<para>Now that the DMA <quote>is in charge</quote>, the DMA activates its
-MEMR, -MEMW, -IOR, -IOW output signals, and the address outputs
from the DMA are set to 0x3456, which will be used to direct the
byte that is about to transferred to a specific memory
location.</para>
<para>The DMA will then let the device that requested the DMA
transfer know that the transfer is commencing. This is done by
asserting the -DACK signal, or in the case of the floppy disk
controller, -DACK2 is asserted.</para>
<para>The floppy disk controller is now responsible for placing the
byte to be transferred on the bus Data lines. Unless the floppy
controller needs more time to get the data byte on the bus (and if
the peripheral does need more time it alerts the DMA via the READY
signal), the DMA will wait one DMA clock, and then de-assert the
-MEMW and -IOR signals so that the memory will latch and store the
byte that was on the bus, and the FDC will know that the byte has
been transferred.</para>
<para>Since the DMA cycle only transfers a single byte at a time,
the FDC now drops the DRQ2 signal, so the DMA knows that it is no
longer needed. The DMA will de-assert the -DACK2 signal, so that
the FDC knows it must stop placing data on the bus.</para>
<para>The DMA will now check to see if any of the other DMA channels
have any work to do. If none of the channels have their DRQ lines
asserted, the DMA controller has completed its work and will now
tri-state the -MEMR, -MEMW, -IOR, -IOW and address signals.</para>
<para>Finally, the DMA will de-assert the HRQ signal. The CPU sees
this, and de-asserts the HOLDA signal. Now the CPU activates its
-MEMR, -MEMW, -IOR, -IOW and address lines, and it resumes
executing instructions and accessing main memory and the
peripherals.</para>
<para>For a typical floppy disk sector, the above process is
repeated 512 times, once for each byte. Each time a byte is
transferred, the address register in the DMA is incremented and
the counter in the DMA that shows how many bytes are to be
transferred is decremented.</para>
<para>When the counter reaches zero, the DMA asserts the EOP signal,
which indicates that the counter has reached zero and no more data
will be transferred until the DMA controller is reprogrammed by
the CPU. This event is also called the Terminal Count (TC).
There is only one EOP signal, and since only DMA channel can be
active at any instant, the DMA channel that is currently active
must be the DMA channel that just completed its task.</para>
<para>If a peripheral wants to generate an interrupt when the
transfer of a buffer is complete, it can test for its -DACKn
signal and the EOP signal both being asserted at the same time.
When that happens, it means the DMA will not transfer any more
information for that peripheral without intervention by the CPU.
The peripheral can then assert one of the interrupt signals to get
the processors' attention. In the PC architecture, the DMA chip
itself is not capable of generating an interrupt. The peripheral
and its associated hardware is responsible for generating any
interrupt that occurs. Subsequently, it is possible to have a
peripheral that uses DMA but does not use interrupts.</para>
<para>It is important to understand that although the CPU always
releases the bus to the DMA when the DMA makes the request, this
action is invisible to both applications and the operating
systems, except for slight changes in the amount of time the
processor takes to execute instructions when the DMA is active.
Subsequently, the processor must poll the peripheral, poll the
registers in the DMA chip, or receive an interrupt from the
peripheral to know for certain when a DMA transfer has
completed.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>DMA Page Registers and 16Meg address space
limitations</title>
<para>You may have noticed earlier that instead of the DMA setting
the address lines to 0x00123456 as we said earlier, the DMA only
set 0x3456. The reason for this takes a bit of explaining.</para>
<para>When the original IBM PC was designed, IBM elected to use both
DMA and interrupt controller chips that were designed for use with
the 8085, an 8-bit processor with an address space of 16 bits
(64K). Since the IBM PC supported more than 64K of memory,
something had to be done to allow the DMA to read or write memory
locations above the 64K mark. What IBM did to solve this problem
was to add an external data latch for each DMA channel that holds
the upper bits of the address to be read to or written from.
Whenever a DMA channel is active, the contents of that latch are
written to the address bus and kept there until the DMA operation
for the channel ends. IBM called these latches <quote>Page
Registers</quote>.</para>
<para>So for our example above, the DMA would put the 0x3456 part of
the address on the bus, and the Page Register for DMA channel 2
would put 0x0012xxxx on the bus. Together, these two values form
the complete address in memory that is to be accessed.</para>
<para>Because the Page Register latch is independent of the DMA
chip, the area of memory to be read or written must not span a 64K
physical boundary. For example, if the DMA accesses memory
location 0xffff, after that transfer the DMA will then increment
the address register and the DMA will access the next byte at
location 0x0000, not 0x10000. The results of letting this happen
are probably not intended.</para>
<note>
<para><quote>Physical</quote> 64K boundaries should not be
confused with 8086-mode 64K <quote>Segments</quote>, which are
created by mathematically adding a segment register with an
offset register. Page Registers have no address overlap and are
mathematically OR-ed together.</para>
</note>
<para>To further complicate matters, the external DMA address
latches on the PC/AT hold only eight bits, so that gives us
8+16=24 bits, which means that the DMA can only point at memory
locations between 0 and 16Meg. For newer computers that allow
more than 16Meg of memory, the standard PC-compatible DMA cannot
access memory locations above 16Meg.</para>
<para>To get around this restriction, operating systems will reserve
a RAM buffer in an area below 16Meg that also does not span a
physical 64K boundary. Then the DMA will be programmed to
transfer data from the peripheral and into that buffer. Once the
DMA has moved the data into this buffer, the operating system will
then copy the data from the buffer to the address where the data
is really supposed to be stored.</para>
<para>When writing data from an address above 16Meg to a DMA-based
peripheral, the data must be first copied from where it resides
into a buffer located below 16Meg, and then the DMA can copy the
data from the buffer to the hardware. In FreeBSD, these reserved
buffers are called <quote>Bounce Buffers</quote>. In the MS-DOS world, they
are sometimes called <quote>Smart Buffers</quote>.</para>
<note>
<para>A new implementation of the 8237, called the 82374, allows
16 bits of page register to be specified, allows access to the
entire 32 bit address space, without the use of bounce
buffers.</para>
</note>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>DMA Operational Modes and Settings</title>
<para>The 8237 DMA can be operated in several modes. The main ones
are:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>Single</term>
<listitem>
<para>A single byte (or word) is transferred. The DMA must
release and re-acquire the bus for each additional byte.
This is commonly-used by devices that cannot transfer the
entire block of data immediately. The peripheral will
request the DMA each time it is ready for another
transfer.</para>
<para>The standard PC-compatible floppy disk controller (NEC
765) only has a one-byte buffer, so it uses this
mode.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Block/Demand</term>
<listitem>
<para>Once the DMA acquires the system bus, an entire block
of data is transferred, up to a maximum of 64K. If the
peripheral needs additional time, it can assert the READY
signal to suspend the transfer briefly. READY should not
be used excessively, and for slow peripheral transfers,
the Single Transfer Mode should be used instead.</para>
<para>The difference between Block and Demand is that once a
Block transfer is started, it runs until the transfer
count reaches zero. DRQ only needs to be asserted until
-DACK is asserted. Demand Mode will transfer one more
bytes until DRQ is de-asserted, at which point the DMA
suspends the transfer and releases the bus back to the
CPU. When DRQ is asserted later, the transfer resumes
where it was suspended.</para>
<para>Older hard disk controllers used Demand Mode until CPU
speeds increased to the point that it was more efficient
to transfer the data using the CPU, particularly if the
memory locations used in the transfer were above the 16Meg
mark.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Cascade</term>
<listitem>
<para>This mechanism allows a DMA channel to request the
bus, but then the attached peripheral device is
responsible for placing the addressing information on the
bus instead of the DMA. This is also used to implement a
technique known as <quote>Bus Mastering</quote>.</para>
<para>When a DMA channel in Cascade Mode receives control of
the bus, the DMA does not place addresses and I/O control
signals on the bus like the DMA normally does when it is
active. Instead, the DMA only asserts the -DACK signal
for the active DMA channel.</para>
<para>At this point it is up to the peripheral connected to
that DMA channel to provide address and bus control
signals. The peripheral has complete control over the
system bus, and can do reads and/or writes to any address
below 16Meg. When the peripheral is finished with the
bus, it de-asserts the DRQ line, and the DMA controller
can then return control to the CPU or to some other DMA
channel.</para>
<para>Cascade Mode can be used to chain multiple DMA
controllers together, and this is exactly what DMA Channel
4 is used for in the PC architecture. When a peripheral
requests the bus on DMA channels 0, 1, 2 or 3, the slave
DMA controller asserts HLDREQ, but this wire is actually
connected to DRQ4 on the primary DMA controller instead of
to the CPU. The primary DMA controller, thinking it has
work to do on Channel 4, requests the bus from the CPU
using HLDREQ signal. Once the CPU grants the bus to the
primary DMA controller, -DACK4 is asserted, and that wire
is actually connected to the HLDA signal on the slave DMA
controller. The slave DMA controller then transfers data
for the DMA channel that requested it (0, 1, 2 or 3), or
the slave DMA may grant the bus to a peripheral that wants
to perform its own bus-mastering, such as a SCSI
controller.</para>
<para>Because of this wiring arrangement, only DMA channels
0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 are usable with peripherals on
PC/AT systems.</para>
<note>
<para>DMA channel 0 was reserved for refresh operations in
early IBM PC computers, but is generally available for
use by peripherals in modern systems.</para>
</note>
<para>When a peripheral is performing Bus Mastering, it is
important that the peripheral transmit data to or from
memory constantly while it holds the system bus. If the
peripheral cannot do this, it must release the bus
frequently so that the system can perform refresh
operations on main memory.</para>
<para>The Dynamic RAM used in all PCs for main memory must
be accessed frequently to keep the bits stored in the
components <quote>charged</quote>. Dynamic RAM essentially consists of
millions of capacitors with each one holding one bit of
data. These capacitors are charged with power to
represent a <literal>1</literal> or drained to represent a <literal>0</literal>. Because
all capacitors leak, power must be added at regular
intervals to keep the <literal>1</literal> values intact. The RAM chips
actually handle the task of pumping power back into all of
the appropriate locations in RAM, but they must be told
when to do it by the rest of the computer so that the
refresh activity won't interfere with the computer wanting
to access RAM normally. If the computer is unable to
refresh memory, the contents of memory will become
corrupted in just a few milliseconds. </para>
<para>Since memory read and write cycles <quote>count</quote> as
refresh cycles (a dynamic RAM refresh cycle is actually an
incomplete memory read cycle), as long as the peripheral
controller continues reading or writing data to sequential
memory locations, that action will refresh all of
memory.</para>
<para>Bus-mastering is found in some SCSI host interfaces
and other high-performance peripheral controllers.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Autoinitialize</term>
<listitem>
<para>This mode causes the DMA to perform Byte, Block or
Demand transfers, but when the DMA transfer counter
reaches zero, the counter and address are set back to
where they were when the DMA channel was originally
programmed. This means that as long as the peripheral
requests transfers, they will be granted. It is up to the
CPU to move new data into the fixed buffer ahead of where
the DMA is about to transfer it when doing output
operations, and read new data out of the buffer behind
where the DMA is writing when doing input
operations.</para>
<para>This technique is frequently used on audio devices
that have small or no hardware <quote>sample</quote> buffers. There
is additional CPU overhead to manage this <quote>circular</quote>
buffer, but in some cases this may be the only way to
eliminate the latency that occurs when the DMA counter
reaches zero and the DMA stops transfers until it is
reprogrammed.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Programming the DMA</title>
<para>The DMA channel that is to be programmed should always be
<quote>masked</quote> before loading any settings. This is because the
hardware might unexpectedly assert the DRQ for that channel, and
the DMA might respond, even though not all of the parameters have
been loaded or updated.</para>
<para>Once masked, the host must specify the direction of the
transfer (memory-to-I/O or I/O-to-memory), what mode of DMA
operation is to be used for the transfer (Single, Block, Demand,
Cascade, etc), and finally the address and length of the transfer
are loaded. The length that is loaded is one less than the amount
you expect the DMA to transfer. The LSB and MSB of the address
and length are written to the same 8-bit I/O port, so another port
must be written to first to guarantee that the DMA accepts the
first byte as the LSB and the second byte as the MSB of the length
and address.</para>
<para>Then, be sure to update the Page Register, which is external
to the DMA and is accessed through a different set of I/O
ports.</para>
<para>Once all the settings are ready, the DMA channel can be
un-masked. That DMA channel is now considered to be <quote>armed</quote>,
and will respond when the DRQ line for that channel is
asserted.</para>
<para>Refer to a hardware data book for precise programming details
for the 8237. You will also need to refer to the I/O port map for
the PC system, which describes where the DMA and Page Register
ports are located. A complete port map table is located
below.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>DMA Port Map</title>
<para>All systems based on the IBM-PC and PC/AT have the DMA
hardware located at the same I/O ports. The complete list is
provided below. Ports assigned to DMA Controller #2 are undefined
on non-AT designs.</para>
<sect3>
<title>0x00 - 0x1f DMA Controller #1 (Channels 0, 1, 2 and
3)</title>
<para>DMA Address and Count Registers</para>
<para>
<literallayout>0x00 write Channel 0 starting address
0x00 read Channel 0 current address 0x01 write
Channel 0 starting word count 0x01 read Channel 0
remaining word count 0x02 write Channel 1 starting
address 0x02 read Channel 1 current address 0x03 write
Channel 1 starting word count 0x03 read Channel 1
remaining word count 0x04 write Channel 2 starting
address 0x04 read Channel 2 current address 0x05 write
Channel 2 starting word count 0x05 read Channel 2
remaining word count 0x06 write Channel 3 starting
address 0x06 read Channel 3 current address 0x07 write
Channel 3 starting word count 0x07 read Channel 3
remaining word count</literallayout>
</para>
<para>DMA Command Registers</para>
<para>
<literallayout>0x08 write Command Register 0x08 read
Status Register 0x09 write Request Register 0x09 read
- 0x0a write Single Mask Register Bit 0x0a read - 0x0b
write Mode Register 0x0b read - 0x0c write Clear
LSB/MSB Flip-Flop 0x0c read - 0x0d write Master
Clear/Reset 0x0d read Temporary Register (not
available on newer versions) 0x0e write Clear Mask
Register 0x0e read - 0x0f write Write All Mask
Register Bits 0x0f read Read All Mask Register Bits
(only in Intel 82374)</literallayout>
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>0xc0 - 0xdf DMA Controller #2 (Channels 4, 5, 6 and
7)</title>
<para>DMA Address and Count Registers</para>
<para>
<literallayout>0xc0 write Channel 4 starting address
0xc0 read Channel 4 current address 0xc2 write
Channel 4 starting word count 0xc2 read Channel 4
remaining word count 0xc4 write Channel 5 starting
address 0xc4 read Channel 5 current address 0xc6 write
Channel 5 starting word count 0xc6 read Channel 5
remaining word count 0xc8 write Channel 6 starting
address 0xc8 read Channel 6 current address 0xca write
Channel 6 starting word count 0xca read Channel 6
remaining word count 0xcc write Channel 7 starting
address 0xcc read Channel 7 current address 0xce write
Channel 7 starting word count 0xce read Channel 7
remaining word count</literallayout>
</para>
<para>DMA Command Registers</para>
<para>
<literallayout>0xd0 write Command Register 0xd0 read
Status Register 0xd2 write Request Register 0xd2 read
- 0xd4 write Single Mask Register Bit 0xd4 read - 0xd6
write Mode Register 0xd6 read - 0xd8 write Clear
LSB/MSB Flip-Flop 0xd8 read - 0xda write Master
Clear/Reset 0xda read Temporary Register (not
present in Intel 82374) 0xdc write Clear Mask Register
0xdc read - 0xde write Write All Mask Register Bits
0xdf read Read All Mask Register Bits (only in Intel
82374)</literallayout>
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>0x80 - 0x9f DMA Page Registers</title>
<para>
<literallayout>0x87 r/w Channel 0 Low byte (23-16)
page Register 0x83 r/w Channel 1 Low byte (23-16)
page Register 0x81 r/w Channel 2 Low byte (23-16)
page Register 0x82 r/w Channel 3 Low byte (23-16)
page Register 0x8b r/w Channel 5 Low byte (23-16)
page Register 0x89 r/w Channel 6 Low byte (23-16)
page Register 0x8a r/w Channel 7 Low byte (23-16)
page Register 0x8f r/w Low byte page
Refresh</literallayout>
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>0x400 - 0x4ff 82374 Enhanced DMA Registers</title>
<para>The Intel 82374 EISA System Component (ESC) was introduced
in early 1996 and includes a DMA controller that provides a
superset of 8237 functionality as well as other PC-compatible
core peripheral components in a single package. This chip is
targeted at both EISA and PCI platforms, and provides modern DMA
features like scatter-gather, ring buffers as well as direct
access by the system DMA to all 32 bits of address space.
</para>
<para>If these features are used, code should also be included to
provide similar functionality in the previous 16 years worth of
PC-compatible computers. For compatibility reasons, some of the
82374 registers must be programmed <emphasis>after</emphasis>
programming the traditional 8237 registers for each transfer.
Writing to a traditional 8237 register forces the contents of
some of the 82374 enhanced registers to zero to provide backward
software compatibility.</para>
<para>
<literallayout>0x401 r/w Channel 0 High byte (bits
23-16) word count 0x403 r/w Channel 1 High byte (bits
23-16) word count 0x405 r/w Channel 2 High byte (bits
23-16) word count 0x407 r/w Channel 3 High byte (bits
23-16) word count 0x4c6 r/w Channel 5 High byte (bits
23-16) word count 0x4ca r/w Channel 6 High byte (bits
23-16) word count 0x4ce r/w Channel 7 High byte (bits
23-16) word count 0x487 r/w Channel 0 High byte (bits
31-24) page Register 0x483 r/w Channel 1 High byte
(bits 31-24) page Register 0x481 r/w Channel 2 High
byte (bits 31-24) page Register 0x482 r/w Channel 3 High
byte (bits 31-24) page Register 0x48b r/w Channel 5 High
byte (bits 31-24) page Register 0x489 r/w Channel 6 High
byte (bits 31-24) page Register 0x48a r/w Channel 6 High
byte (bits 31-24) page Register 0x48f r/w High byte page
Refresh 0x4e0 r/w Channel 0 Stop Register (bits 7-2)
0x4e1 r/w Channel 0 Stop Register (bits 15-8) 0x4e2
r/w Channel 0 Stop Register (bits 23-16) 0x4e4 r/w
Channel 1 Stop Register (bits 7-2) 0x4e5 r/w
Channel 1 Stop Register (bits 15-8) 0x4e6 r/w
Channel 1 Stop Register (bits 23-16) 0x4e8 r/w
Channel 2 Stop Register (bits 7-2) 0x4e9 r/w
Channel 2 Stop Register (bits 15-8) 0x4ea r/w
Channel 2 Stop Register (bits 23-16) 0x4ec r/w
Channel 3 Stop Register (bits 7-2) 0x4ed r/w
Channel 3 Stop Register (bits 15-8) 0x4ee r/w
Channel 3 Stop Register (bits 23-16) 0x4f4 r/w
Channel 5 Stop Register (bits 7-2) 0x4f5 r/w
Channel 5 Stop Register (bits 15-8) 0x4f6 r/w
Channel 5 Stop Register (bits 23-16) 0x4f8 r/w
Channel 6 Stop Register (bits 7-2) 0x4f9 r/w
Channel 6 Stop Register (bits 15-8) 0x4fa r/w
Channel 6 Stop Register (bits 23-16) 0x4fc r/w
Channel 7 Stop Register (bits 7-2) 0x4fd r/w
Channel 7 Stop Register (bits 15-8) 0x4fe r/w
Channel 7 Stop Register (bits 23-16) 0x40a write
Channels 0-3 Chaining Mode Register 0x40a read
Channel Interrupt Status Register 0x4d4 write Channels 4-7
Chaining Mode Register 0x4d4 read Chaining Mode Status
0x40c read Chain Buffer Expiration Control Register 0x410
write Channel 0 Scatter-Gather Command Register 0x411 write
Channel 1 Scatter-Gather Command Register 0x412 write
Channel 2 Scatter-Gather Command Register 0x413 write
Channel 3 Scatter-Gather Command Register 0x415 write
Channel 5 Scatter-Gather Command Register 0x416 write
Channel 6 Scatter-Gather Command Register 0x417 write
Channel 7 Scatter-Gather Command Register 0x418 read
Channel 0 Scatter-Gather Status Register 0x419 read
Channel 1 Scatter-Gather Status Register 0x41a read
Channel 2 Scatter-Gather Status Register 0x41b read
Channel 3 Scatter-Gather Status Register 0x41d read
Channel 5 Scatter-Gather Status Register 0x41e read
Channel 5 Scatter-Gather Status Register 0x41f read
Channel 7 Scatter-Gather Status Register 0x420-0x423 r/w
Channel 0 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table Pointer Register
0x424-0x427 r/w Channel 1 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table
Pointer Register 0x428-0x42b r/w Channel 2
Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table Pointer Register 0x42c-0x42f
r/w Channel 3 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table Pointer
Register 0x434-0x437 r/w Channel 5 Scatter-Gather
Descriptor Table Pointer Register 0x438-0x43b r/w
Channel 6 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table Pointer Register
0x43c-0x43f r/w Channel 7 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table
Pointer Register</literallayout>
</para>
<para> </para>
</sect3>
</sect2>
</sect1>
</chapter>
</part>
<part>
<title>Appendices</title>
<chapter
id="mirrors">
<title>Obtaining FreeBSD</title>
<sect1>
<title>CD-ROM Publishers</title>
<para>FreeBSD is available on CD-ROM from Walnut Creek CDROM:
<blockquote>
<para>Walnut Creek CDROM<!-- <br> --> 4041 Pike Lane, Suite F<!--
<br> --> Concord CA 94520 USA<!-- <br> --> Phone: +1 925
674-0783<!-- <br> --> Fax: +1 925 674-0821<!-- <br> --> Email:
<ulink URL="mailto:info@cdrom.com">info@cdrom.com</ulink><!--
<br> --> WWW: <ulink
URL="http://www.cdrom.com/">http://www.cdrom.com/</ulink></para>
</blockquote>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="mirrors-ftp">
<title>FTP Sites</title>
<para>The official sources for FreeBSD are available via anonymous FTP
from:
<blockquote>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink>.</para>
</blockquote>
</para>
<para>Additionally, FreeBSD is available via anonymous FTP from the
following mirror sites. If you choose to obtain FreeBSD via
anonymous FTP, please try to use a site near you.</para>
<para><xref linkend="mirrors-ar" remap="Argentina">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-au" remap="Australia">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-br" remap="Brazil">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-ca" remap="Canada">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-cz" remap="Czech Republic">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-dk" remap="Denmark">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-ee" remap="Estonia">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-fi" remap="Finland">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-fr" remap="France">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-de" remap="Germany">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-hk" remap="Hong Kong">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-ie" remap="Ireland">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-il" remap="Israel">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-jp" remap="Japan">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-kr" remap="Korea">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-nl" remap="Netherlands">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-pl" remap="Poland">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-pt" remap="Portugal">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-ru" remap="Russia">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-za" remap="South Africa">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-si" remap="Slovenia">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-se" remap="Sweden">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-tw" remap="Taiwan">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-th" remap="Thailand">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-ua" remap="Ukraine">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-uk" remap="UK">,
<xref linkend="mirrors-us" remap="USA">.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-ar">Argentina</term>
<listitem>
<para>In case of problems, please contact the <ulink
URL="mailto:hostmaster@ar.FreeBSD.ORG">hostmaster</ulink>
for this domain.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.ar.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.ar.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> -->
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-au">Australia</term>
<listitem>
<para>In case of problems, please contact the <ulink
URL="mailto:hostmaster@au.FreeBSD.ORG">hostmaster</ulink>
for this domain.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.au.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.au.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp2.au.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp2.au.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp3.au.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp3.au.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp4.au.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp4.au.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> -->
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-br">Brazil</term>
<listitem>
<para>In case of problems, please contact the <ulink
URL="mailto:hostmaster@br.FreeBSD.ORG">hostmaster</ulink>
for this domain.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.br.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.br.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp2.br.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp2.br.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp3.br.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp3.br.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp4.br.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp4.br.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp5.br.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp5.br.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp6.br.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp6.br.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp7.br.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp7.br.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-ca">Canada</term>
<listitem>
<para>In case of problems, please contact the <ulink
URL="mailto:hostmaster@ca.FreeBSD.ORG">hostmaster</ulink>
for this domain.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.ca.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.ca.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> -->
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-cz">Czech Republic</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://sunsite.mff.cuni.cz/OS/FreeBSD">ftp://sunsite.mff.cuni.cz/OS/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --> Contact: <ulink URL="mailto:jj@sunsite.mff.cuni.cz">jj@sunsite.mff.cuni.cz</ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-dk">Denmark</term>
<listitem>
<para>In case of problems, please contact the <ulink
URL="mailto:hostmaster@dk.FreeBSD.ORG">hostmaster</ulink>
for this domain.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.dk.freeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.dk.freeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> -->
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-ee">Estonia</term>
<listitem>
<para>In case of problems, please contact the <ulink
URL="mailto:hostmaster@ee.FreeBSD.ORG">hostmaster</ulink>
for this domain.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.ee.freebsd.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.ee.freebsd.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> -->
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-fi">Finland</term>
<listitem>
<para>In case of problems, please contact the <ulink
URL="mailto:hostmaster@fi.FreeBSD.ORG">hostmaster</ulink>
for this domain.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.fi.freebsd.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.fi.freebsd.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> -->
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-fr">France</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.ibp.fr/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.ibp.fr/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --> Contact: <ulink URL="mailto:Remy.Card@ibp.fr">Remy.Card@ibp.fr</ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-de">Germany</term>
<listitem>
<para>In case of problems, please contact the <ulink
URL="mailto:hostmaster@de.FreeBSD.ORG">hostmaster</ulink>
for this domain.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.de.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.de.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp2.de.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp2.de.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp3.de.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp3.de.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp4.de.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp4.de.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp5.de.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp5.de.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp6.de.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp6.de.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp7.de.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp7.de.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> -->
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-hk">Hong Kong</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.hk.super.net/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.hk.super.net/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --> Contact: <ulink URL="mailto:ftp-admin@HK.Super.NET">ftp-admin@HK.Super.NET</ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-ie">Ireland</term>
<listitem>
<para>In case of problems, please contact the <ulink
URL="mailto:hostmaster@ie.FreeBSD.ORG">hostmaster</ulink>
for this domain.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.ie.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.ie.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> -->
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-il">Israel</term>
<listitem>
<para>In case of problems, please contact the <ulink
URL="mailto:hostmaster@il.FreeBSD.ORG">hostmaster</ulink>
for this domain.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.il.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.il.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp2.il.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp2.il.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> -->
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-jp">Japan</term>
<listitem>
<para>In case of problems, please contact the <ulink
URL="mailto:hostmaster@jp.FreeBSD.ORG">hostmaster</ulink>
for this domain.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.jp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.jp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp2.jp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp2.jp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp3.jp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp3.jp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp4.jp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp4.jp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp5.jp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp5.jp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp6.jp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp6.jp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> -->
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-kr">Korea</term>
<listitem>
<para>In case of problems, please contact the <ulink
URL="mailto:hostmaster@kr.FreeBSD.ORG">hostmaster</ulink>
for this domain.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.kr.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.kr.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp2.kr.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp2.kr.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> -->
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-nl">Netherlands</term>
<listitem>
<para>In case of problems, please contact the <ulink
URL="mailto:hostmaster@nl.FreeBSD.ORG">hostmaster</ulink>
for this domain.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.nl.freebsd.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.nl.freebsd.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> -->
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-pl">Poland</term>
<listitem>
<para>In case of problems, please contact the <ulink
URL="mailto:hostmaster@pl.FreeBSD.ORG">hostmaster</ulink>
for this domain.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.pl.freebsd.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.pl.freebsd.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> -->
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-pt">Portugal</term>
<listitem>
<para>In case of problems, please contact the <ulink
URL="mailto:hostmaster@pt.FreeBSD.ORG">hostmaster</ulink>
for this domain.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.pt.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.pt.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp2.pt.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp2.pt.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-ru">Russia</term>
<listitem>
<para>In case of problems, please contact the <ulink
URL="mailto:hostmaster@ru.FreeBSD.ORG">hostmaster</ulink>
for this domain.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.ru.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.ru.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp2.ru.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp2.ru.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp3.ru.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp3.ru.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-za">South Africa</term>
<listitem>
<para>In case of problems, please contact the <ulink
URL="mailto:hostmaster@za.FreeBSD.ORG">hostmaster</ulink>
for this domain.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.za.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.za.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp2.za.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp2.za.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp3.za.FreeBSD.ORG/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp3.za.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> -->
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-si">Slovenia</term>
<listitem>
<para>In case of problems, please contact the <ulink
URL="mailto:hostmaster@si.FreeBSD.ORG">hostmaster</ulink>
for this domain.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.si.freebsd.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.si.freebsd.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> -->
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-se">Sweden</term>
<listitem>
<para>In case of problems, please contact the <ulink
URL="mailto:hostmaster@se.FreeBSD.ORG">hostmaster</ulink>
for this domain.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.se.freebsd.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.se.freebsd.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> -->
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-tw">Taiwan</term>
<listitem>
<para>In case of problems, please contact the <ulink
URL="mailto:hostmaster@tw.FreeBSD.ORG">hostmaster</ulink>
for this domain.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.tw.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.tw.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp2.tw.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp2.tw.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp3.tw.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp3.tw.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> -->
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-th">Thailand</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.nectec.or.th/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.nectec.or.th/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --> Contact: <ulink URL="mailto:ftpadmin@ftp.nectec.or.th">ftpadmin@ftp.nectec.or.th</ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-ua">Ukraine</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.ua.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.ua.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --> Contact: <ulink URL="mailto:archer@lucky.net">archer@lucky.net</ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-uk">UK</term>
<listitem>
<para>In case of problems, please contact the <ulink
URL="mailto:hostmaster@uk.FreeBSD.ORG">hostmaster</ulink>
for this domain.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.uk.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.uk.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp2.uk.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp2.uk.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp3.uk.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp3.uk.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp4.uk.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp4.uk.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> -->
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term><anchor id="mirrors-us">USA</term>
<listitem>
<para>In case of problems, please contact the <ulink
URL="mailto:hostmaster@FreeBSD.ORG">hostmaster</ulink> for
this domain.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp2.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp2.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp3.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp3.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp4.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp4.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp5.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp5.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp6.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp6.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> -->
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>The latest versions of export-restricted code for FreeBSD (2.0C
or later) (eBones and secure) are being made available at the
following locations. If you are outside the U.S. or Canada, please
get secure (DES) and eBones (Kerberos) from one of the following
foreign distribution sites:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>South Africa</term>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="mailto:hostmaster@internat.FreeBSD.ORG">Hostmaster</ulink> for this domain.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.internat.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.internat.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> -->
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp2.internat.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp2.internat.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> -->
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Brazil</term>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="mailto:hostmaster@br.FreeBSD.ORG">Hostmaster</ulink>
for this domain.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.br.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD">ftp://ftp.br.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD</ulink><!-- <br> -->
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Finland</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://nic.funet.fi/pub/unix/FreeBSD/eurocrypt">ftp://nic.funet.fi/pub/unix/FreeBSD/eurocrypt</ulink><!-- <br> --> Contact: <ulink URL="mailto:count@nic.funet.fi">count@nic.funet.fi</ulink>.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="mirrors-ctm">
<title>CTM Sites</title>
<para><xref linkend="ctm" remap="CTM">/FreeBSD is available via
anonymous FTP from the following mirror sites. If you choose to
obtain CTM via anonymous FTP, please try to use a site near
you.</para>
<para>In case of problems, please contact &a.phk;.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>California, Bay Area, official source</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/CTM">ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/CTM</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Germany, Trier</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.uni-trier.de/pub/unix/systems/BSD/FreeBSD/CTM">ftp://ftp.uni-trier.de/pub/unix/systems/BSD/FreeBSD/CTM</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>South Africa, backup server for old
deltas</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ftp.internat.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/CTM">ftp://ftp.internat.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/CTM</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Taiwan/R.O.C, Chiayi</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ctm.tw.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/CTM">ftp://ctm.tw.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/CTM</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ctm2.tw.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/CTM">ftp://ctm2.tw.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/CTM</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="ftp://ctm3.tw.freebsd.org/pub/freebsd/CTM">ftp://ctm3.tw.freebsd.org/pub/freebsd/CTM</ulink><!-- <br> --></para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>If you did not find a mirror near to you or the mirror is
incomplete, try <ulink URL="http://ftpsearch.ntnu.no/">FTP
search</ulink> at <ulink
URL="http://ftpsearch.ntnu.no/ftpsearch/">http://ftpsearch.ntnu.no/ftpsearch</ulink>. FTP search is a great free archie server in Trondheim, Norway.</para>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="mirrors-cvsup">
<title>CVSup Sites</title>
<para><xref linkend="cvsup" remap="CVSup"> servers for FreeBSD are
running at the following sites:</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>Argentina</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>cvsup.ar.FreeBSD.ORG (<ulink
URL="mailto:msagre@cactus.fi.uba.ar">maintainer</ulink>)</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Australia</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>cvsup.au.FreeBSD.ORG (<ulink
URL="mailto:dawes@physics.usyd.edu.au">maintainer</ulink>)</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Brazil</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>cvsup.br.FreeBSD.ORG (<ulink
URL="mailto:cvsup@cvsup.br.freebsd.org">maintainer</ulink>)</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Canada</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>cvsup.ca.FreeBSD.ORG (<ulink
URL="mailto:james@ican.net">maintainer</ulink>)</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Estonia</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>cvsup.ee.FreeBSD.ORG (<ulink
URL="mailto:taavi@uninet.ee">maintainer</ulink>)</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Finland</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>cvsup.fi.FreeBSD.ORG (<ulink
URL="mailto:count@key.sms.fi">maintainer</ulink>)</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Germany</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>cvsup.de.FreeBSD.ORG (<ulink
URL="mailto:wosch@freebsd.org">maintainer</ulink>)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>cvsup2.de.FreeBSD.ORG (<ulink
URL="mailto:petzi@freebsd.org">maintainer</ulink>)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>cvsup3.de.FreeBSD.ORG (<ulink
URL="mailto:ag@leo.org">maintainer</ulink>)</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Japan</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>cvsup.jp.FreeBSD.ORG (<ulink
URL="mailto:simokawa@sat.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp">maintainer</ulink>)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>cvsup2.jp.FreeBSD.ORG (<ulink
URL="mailto:max@FreeBSD.ORG">maintainer</ulink>)</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Netherlands</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>cvsup.nl.FreeBSD.ORG (<ulink
URL="mailto:xaa@stack.nl">maintainer</ulink>)</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Norway</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>cvsup.no.FreeBSD.ORG (<ulink
URL="mailto:Tor.Egge@idt.ntnu.no">maintainer</ulink>)</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Russia</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>cvsup.ru.FreeBSD.ORG (<ulink
URL="mailto:mishania@demos.su">maintainer</ulink>)</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>South Africa</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>cvsup.za.FreeBSD.ORG (<ulink
URL="mailto:markm@FreeBSD.ORG">maintainer</ulink>)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>cvsup2.za.FreeBSD.ORG (<ulink
URL="mailto:markm@FreeBSD.ORG">maintainer</ulink>)</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Taiwan</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>cvsup.tw.FreeBSD.ORG (<ulink
URL="mailto:jdli@freebsd.csie.nctu.edu.tw">maintainer</ulink>)</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Ukraine</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>cvsup2.ua.FreeBSD.ORG (<ulink
URL="mailto:archer@lucky.net">maintainer</ulink>)</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>United Kingdom</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>cvsup.uk.FreeBSD.ORG (<ulink
URL="mailto:joe@pavilion.net">maintainer</ulink>)</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>USA</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>cvsup.FreeBSD.ORG (<ulink
URL="mailto:skynyrd@opus.cts.cwu.edu">maintainer</ulink>)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>cvsup2.FreeBSD.ORG (<ulink
URL="mailto:jdp@FreeBSD.ORG">maintainer</ulink>)</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>cvsup3.FreeBSD.ORG (<ulink
URL="mailto:wollman@FreeBSD.ORG">maintainer</ulink>)</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>The export-restricted code for FreeBSD (eBones and secure) is
available via CVSup at the following international repository.
Please use this site to get the export-restricted code, if you are
outside the USA or Canada.</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>South Africa</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>cvsup.internat.FreeBSD.ORG (<ulink
URL="mailto:markm@FreeBSD.ORG">maintainer</ulink>)</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>The following CVSup site is especially designed for <xref
linkend="ctm" remap="CTM"> users. Unlike the other CVSup mirrors,
it is kept up-to-date by CTM. That means if you CVSup <literal>cvs-all</literal> with <literal>release=cvs</literal>
from this site, you get a version of the repository (including the
inevitable <filename>.ctm_status</filename> file) which is
suitable for being updated using the CTM <literal>cvs-cur</literal> deltas. This allows users who track
the entire <literal>cvs-all</literal> tree to go from
CVSup to CTM without having to rebuild their repository from scratch
using a fresh CTM base delta.</para>
<note>
<para>This special feature only works for the <literal>cvs-all</literal> distribution with
<command>cvs</command> as the release tag. CVSupping any other
distribution and/or release will get you the specified
distribution, but it will not be suitable for CTM updating.</para>
</note>
<note>
<para>Because the current version of CTM does not preserve the
timestamps of files, the timestamps at this mirror site are not
the same as those at other mirror sites. Switching between this
site and other sites is not recommended. It will work correctly,
but will be somewhat inefficient.</para>
</note>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>Germany</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>ctm.FreeBSD.ORG (<ulink
URL="mailto:blank@fox.uni-trier.de">maintainer</ulink>)</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect1>
</chapter>
<chapter
id="bibliography">
<title>Bibliography</title>
<para>While the manual pages provide the definitive reference for
individual pieces of the FreeBSD operating system, they are notorious
for not illustrating how to put the pieces together to make the whole
operating system run smoothly. For this, there is no substitute for a
good book on UNIX system administration and a good users'
manual.</para>
<sect1>
<title>Books &amp; Magazines Specific to FreeBSD</title>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>International books &amp;
Magazines:</emphasis></para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="http://freebsd.csie.nctu.edu.tw/~jdli/book.html">Using
FreeBSD</ulink> (in Chinese).</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>FreeBSD for PC 98'ers (in Japanese), published by SHUWA
System Co, LTD. ISBN 4-87966-468-5 C3055 P2900E.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>FreeBSD (in Japanese), published by CUTT. ISBN
4-906391-22-2 C3055 P2400E.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="http://www.shoeisha.co.jp/pc/index/shinkan/97_05_06.htm">Complete Introduction to FreeBSD</ulink> (in Japanese), published by <ulink URL="http://www.shoeisha.co.jp/">Shoeisha Co., Ltd</ulink>. ISBN 4-88135-473-6 P3600E.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="http://www.ascii.co.jp/pb/book1/shinkan/detail/1322785.html">Personal UNIX Starter Kit FreeBSD</ulink> (in Japanese), published by <ulink URL="http://www.ascii.co.jp/">ASCII</ulink>. ISBN 4-7561-1733-3 P3000E.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>FreeBSD Handbook (Japanese translation), published by
<ulink URL="http://www.ascii.co.jp/">ASCII</ulink>. ISBN
4-7561-1580-2 P3800E.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>English language books &amp;
Magazines:</emphasis></para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="http://www.cdrom.com/titles/os/bsdbook2.htm">The
Complete FreeBSD</ulink>, published by <ulink
URL="http://www.cdrom.com">Walnut Creek
CDROM</ulink>.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Users' Guides</title>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley. <emphasis
remap=sl>4.4BSD User's Reference Manual</emphasis>. O'Reilly
&amp; Associates, Inc., 1994.<!-- <br> --> ISBN
1-56592-075-9</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley. <emphasis
remap=sl>4.4BSD User's Supplementary Documents</emphasis>.
O'Reilly &amp; Associates, Inc., 1994.<!-- <br> --> ISBN
1-56592-076-7</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis remap=sl>UNIX in a Nutshell</emphasis>. O'Reilly
&amp; Associates, Inc., 1990.<!-- <br> --> ISBN
093717520X</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Mui, Linda. <emphasis>What You Need To Know When You Can't
Find Your UNIX System Administrator</emphasis>. O'Reilly
&amp; Associates, Inc., 1995. <!-- <br> --> ISBN 1-56592-104-6
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink URL="http://www-wks.acs.ohio-state.edu/">Ohio State
University</ulink> has written a <ulink
URL="http://www-wks.acs.ohio-state.edu/unix_course/unix.html">UNIX Introductory Course</ulink> which is available online in HTML and postscript format.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Administrators' Guides</title>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Albitz, Paul and Liu, Cricket. <emphasis>DNS and
BIND</emphasis>, 2nd Ed. O'Reilly &amp; Associates, Inc.,
1997. <!-- <br> --> ISBN 1-56592-236-0 </para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley. <emphasis
remap=sl>4.4BSD System Manager's Manual</emphasis>. O'Reilly
&amp; Associates, Inc., 1994. <!-- <br> --> ISBN
1-56592-080-5</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Costales, Brian, et al. <emphasis>Sendmail</emphasis>, 2nd
Ed. O'Reilly &amp; Associates, Inc., 1997.<!-- <br> --> ISBN
1-56592-222-0 </para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Frisch, &AElig;leen. <emphasis>Essential System
Administration</emphasis>, 2nd Ed. O'Reilly &amp;
Associates, Inc., 1995. <!-- <br> -->ISBN 1-56592-127-5
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Hunt, Craig. <emphasis>TCP/IP Network
Administration</emphasis>. O'Reilly &amp; Associates, Inc.,
1992. <!-- <br> --> ISBN 0-937175-82-X</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Nemeth, Evi. <emphasis>UNIX System Administration
Handbook</emphasis>. 2nd ed. Prentice Hall, 1995. <!-- <br>
--> ISBN 0131510517</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Stern, Hal <emphasis>Managing NFS and NIS</emphasis>
O'Reilly &amp; Associates, Inc., 1991. <!-- <br> --> ISBN
0-937175-75-7</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Programmers' Guides</title>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Asente, Paul. <emphasis>X Window System
Toolkit</emphasis>. Digital Press. <!-- <br> --> ISBN
1-55558-051-3</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley. <emphasis
remap=sl>4.4BSD Programmer's Reference Manual</emphasis>.
O'Reilly &amp; Associates, Inc., 1994. <!-- <br> --> ISBN
1-56592-078-3</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley. <emphasis
remap=sl>4.4BSD Programmer's Supplementary
Documents</emphasis>. O'Reilly &amp; Associates, Inc., 1994.
<!-- <br> --> ISBN 1-56592-079-1</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Ellis, Margaret A. and Stroustrup, Bjarne. <emphasis>The
Annotated C++ Reference Manual</emphasis>. Addison-Wesley,
1990. <!-- <br> --> ISBN 0-201-51459-1</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Harbison, Samuel P. and Steele, Guy L. Jr. <emphasis>C: A
Reference Manual</emphasis>. 4rd ed. Prentice Hall, 1995.
<!-- <br> -->ISBN 0-13-326224-3</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Kernighan, Brian and Dennis M. Ritchie. <emphasis>The C
Programming Language.</emphasis>. PTR Prentice Hall, 1988.
<!-- <br> --> ISBN 0-13-110362-9</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Lehey, Greg. <emphasis>Port UNIX Software</emphasis>.
O'Reilly &amp; Associates, Inc., 1995.<!-- <br> --> ISBN
1-56592-126-7</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Plauger, P. J. <emphasis>The Standard C
Library</emphasis>. Prentice Hall, 1992. <!-- <br> --> ISBN
0-13-131509-9</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Stevens, W. Richard. <emphasis>Advanced Programming in the
UNIX Environment</emphasis>. Reading, Mass. :
Addison-Wesley, 1992<!-- <br> --> ISBN 0-201-56317-7</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Stevens, W. Richard. <emphasis>UNIX Network
Programming</emphasis>. PTR Prentice Hall, 1990. <!-- <br>
--> ISBN 0-13-949876-1</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Wells, Bill. <quote>Writing Serial Drivers for UNIX</quote>.
<emphasis>Dr. Dobb's Journal</emphasis>. 19(15), December
1994. pp68-71, 97-99.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Operating System Internals</title>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Andleigh, Prabhat K. <emphasis>UNIX System
Architecture</emphasis>. Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1990.<!-- <br>
--> ISBN 0-13-949843-5</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Jolitz, William. <quote>Porting UNIX to the 386</quote>. <emphasis>Dr.
Dobb's Journal</emphasis>. January 1991-July 1992.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Leffler, Samuel J., Marshall Kirk McKusick, Michael J
Karels and John Quarterman <emphasis>The Design and
Implementation of the 4.3BSD UNIX Operating
System</emphasis>. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley,
1989.<!-- <br> --> ISBN 0-201-06196-1</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Leffler, Samuel J., Marshall Kirk McKusick, <emphasis>The
Design and Implementation of the 4.3BSD UNIX Operating
System: Answer Book</emphasis>. Reading, Mass. :
Addison-Wesley, 1991.<!-- <br> --> ISBN 0-201-54629-9</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>McKusick, Marshall Kirk, Keith Bostic, Michael J Karels,
and John Quarterman. <emphasis>The Design and Implementation
of the 4.4BSD Operating System</emphasis>. Reading, Mass. :
Addison-Wesley, 1996.<!-- <br> --> ISBN 0-201-54979-4</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Stevens, W. Richard. <emphasis>TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume
1: The Protocols</emphasis>. Reading, Mass. :
Addison-Wesley, 1996.<!-- <br> --> ISBN 0-201-63346-9</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Stevens, W. Richard. <emphasis>TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume
3: TCP for Transactions, HTTP, NNTP and the UNIX Domain
Protocols</emphasis>. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley,
1996.<!-- <br> --> ISBN 0-201-63495-3</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Vahalia, Uresh. <emphasis>UNIX Internals -- The New
Frontiers</emphasis>. Prentice Hall, 1996.<!-- <br> --> ISBN
0-13-101908-2</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Wright, Gary R. and W. Richard Stevens. <emphasis>TCP/IP
Illustrated, Volume 2: The Implementation</emphasis>.
Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995.<!-- <br> --> ISBN
0-201-63354-X</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Security Reference</title>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Cheswick, William R. and Steven M. Bellovin.
<emphasis>Firewalls and Internal Security: Repelling the Wily
Hacker</emphasis>. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley,
1995.<!-- <br> --> ISBN 0-201-63357-4 </para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Garfinkel, Simson and Gene Spafford. <emphasis>Practical
UNIX Security</emphasis>. 2nd Ed. O'Reilly &amp; Associates,
Inc., 1996. <!-- <br> --> ISBN 1-56592-148-8 </para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Garfinkel, Simson. <emphasis>PGP Pretty Good
Privacy</emphasis> O'Reilly &amp; Associates, Inc., 1995.
<!-- <br> --> ISBN 1-56592-098-8 </para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Hardware Reference</title>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Anderson, Don and Tom Shanley. <emphasis>Pentium Processor
System Architecture</emphasis>. 2nd ed. Reading, Mass. :
Addison-Wesley, 1995.<!-- <br> --> ISBN 0-201-40992-5</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Ferraro, Richard F. <emphasis>Programmer's Guide to the
EGA, VGA, and Super VGA Cards</emphasis>. 3rd ed. Reading,
Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995.<!-- <br> --> ISBN
0-201-62490-7</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Shanley, Tom. <emphasis>80486 System
Architecture</emphasis>. 3rd ed. Reading, Mass. :
Addison-Wesley, 1995. <!-- <br> -->ISBN 0-201-40994-1</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Shanley, Tom. <emphasis>ISA System
Architecture</emphasis>. 3rd ed. Reading, Mass. :
Addison-Wesley, 1995.<!-- <br> --> ISBN 0-201-40996-8</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Shanley, Tom. <emphasis>PCI System
Architecture</emphasis>. 3rd ed. Reading, Mass. :
Addison-Wesley, 1995. <!-- <br> -->ISBN 0-201-40993-3</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Van Gilluwe, Frank. <emphasis>The Undocumented
PC</emphasis>. Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.,
1994.<!-- <br> --> ISBN 0-201-62277-7</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>UNIX History</title>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Lion, John <emphasis>Lion's Commentary on UNIX, 6th Ed.
With Source Code</emphasis>. ITP Media Group, 1996.<!-- <br>
--> ISBN 1573980137</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Raymond, Eric s. <emphasis>The New Hacker's Dictonary, 3rd
edition</emphasis>. MIT Press, 1996.<!-- <br> --> ISBN
0-262-68092-0<!-- <br> --> Also known as the <ulink
URL="http://www.ccil.org/jargon/jargon.html">Jargon
File</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Salus, Peter H. <emphasis>A quarter century of
UNIX</emphasis>. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.,
1994.<!-- <br> --> ISBN 0-201-54777-5</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Simon Garfinkel, Daniel Weise, Steven Strassmann.
<emphasis>The UNIX-HATERS Handbook</emphasis>. IDG Books
Worldwide, Inc., 1994.<!-- <br> --> ISBN 1-56884-203-1</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Don Libes, Sandy Ressler <emphasis>Life with
UNIX</emphasis> - special edition. Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
1989.<!-- <br> --> ISBN 0-13-536657-7</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>The BSD family tree</emphasis>. 1997.<!-- <br>
--> <ulink
URL="http://www.de.freebsd.org/de/ftp/unix-stammbaum">http://www.de.freebsd.org/de/ftp/unix-stammbaum</ulink> or <ulink URL="file:/usr/share/misc/bsd-family-tree">local</ulink> on a FreeBSD-current machine.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>The BSD Release Announcements
collection</emphasis>. 1997.<!-- <br> --> <ulink
URL="http://www.de.FreeBSD.ORG/de/ftp/releases/">http://www.de.FreeBSD.ORG/de/ftp/releases/</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Networked Computer Science Technical Reports
Library</emphasis>.<!-- <br> --> <ulink
URL="http://www.ncstrl.org/">http://www.ncstrl.org/</ulink></para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Magazines and Journals</title>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>The C/C++ Users Journal</emphasis>. R&amp;D
Publications Inc. ISSN 1075-2838</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Sys Admin - The Journal for UNIX System
Administrators</emphasis> Miller Freeman, Inc., ISSN
1061-2688</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect1>
</chapter>
<chapter
id="eresources">
<title>Resources on the Internet</title>
<para><emphasis>Contributed by &a.jkh;.</emphasis></para>
<para>The rapid pace of FreeBSD progress makes print media impractical
as a means of following the latest developments. Electronic resources
are the best, if not often the only, way stay informed of the latest
advances. Since FreeBSD is a volunteer effort, the user community
itself also generally serves as a `technical support department' of
sorts, with electronic mail and USENET news being the most effective
way of reaching that community.</para>
<para>The most important points of contact with the FreeBSD user
community are outlined below. If you are aware of other resources not
mentioned here, please send them to the &a.doc;so that they may also
be included.</para>
<sect1
id="eresources-mail">
<title>Mailing lists</title>
<para>Though many of the FreeBSD development members read USENET, we
cannot always guarantee that we will get to your questions in a
timely fashion (or at all) if you post them only to one of the
comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.* groups. By addressing your questions to the
appropriate mailing list you will reach both us and a concentrated
FreeBSD audience, invariably assuring a better (or at least faster)
response.</para>
<para>The charters for the various lists are given at the bottom of
this document. <emphasis remap=bf>Please read the charter before
joining or sending mail to any list</emphasis>. Most of our list
subscribers now receive many hundreds of FreeBSD related messages
every day, and by setting down charters and rules for proper use we
are striving to keep the signal-to-noise ratio of the lists high.
To do less would see the mailing lists ultimately fail as an
effective communications medium for the project.</para>
<para>Archives are kept for all of the mailing lists and can be
searched using the <ulink
URL="http://www.FreeBSD.ORG/search.html">FreeBSD World Wide Web
server</ulink>. The keyword searchable archive offers an
excellent way of finding answers to frequently asked questions and
should be consulted before posting a question.</para>
<sect2
id="eresources-summary">
<title>List summary</title>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>General lists:</emphasis> The following are
general lists which anyone is free to join: <literallayout>List
Purpose
---------------------------------------------------------------------- freebsd-announce Important events and project milestones freebsd-bugs Bug reports freebsd-chat Non-technical items related to the FreeBSD community freebsd-current Discussion concerning the use of FreeBSD-current freebsd-stable Discussion concerning the use of FreeBSD-stable freebsd-isp Issues for Internet Service Providers using FreeBSD freebsd-jobs FreeBSD employment and consulting opportunities freebsd-questions User questions</literallayout>
</para>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Technical lists:</emphasis> The following
lists are for technical discussion. You should read the charter
for each list carefully before joining or sending mail to one as
there are firm guidelines for their use and content.
<literallayout>List Purpose
---------------------------------------------------------------------- freebsd-afs Porting AFS to FreeBSD freebsd-alpha Porting FreeBSD to the Alpha freebsd-doc The FreeBSD Documentation project freebsd-emulation Emulation of other systems such as Linux/DOS/Windows freebsd-fs Filesystems freebsd-hackers General technical discussion freebsd-hardware General discussion of hardware for running FreeBSD freebsd-isdn ISDN developers freebsd-java Java developers and people porting JDKs to FreeBSD freebsd-mobile Discussions about mobile computing freebsd-multimedia Multimedia discussion freebsd-platforms Concerning ports to non-Intel architecture platforms freebsd-ports Discussion of the ports collection freebsd-scsi The SCSI subsystem freebsd-security Security issues freebsd-smp Design discussions for [A]Symmetric MultiProcessing freebsd-sparc Porting FreeBSD to Sparc systems.</literallayout>
</para>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Limited lists:</emphasis> The following
lists require approval from <ulink
URL="mailto:core@freebsd.org">core@FreeBSD.ORG</ulink> to join,
though anyone is free to send messages to them which fall within
the scope of their charters. It is also a good idea establish a
presence in the technical lists before asking to join one of these
limited lists. <literallayout>List Purpose
---------------------------------------------------------------------- freebsd-admin Administrative issues freebsd-arch Architecture and design discussions freebsd-core FreeBSD core team freebsd-hubs People running mirror sites (infrastructural support) freebsd-install Installation development freebsd-security-notifications Security notifications freebsd-user-groups User group coordination</literallayout>
</para>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>CVS lists:</emphasis> The following lists
are for people interested in seeing the log messages for changes
to various areas of the source tree. They are <emphasis
remap=bf>Read-Only</emphasis> lists and should not have mail
sent to them.</para>
<para>
<literallayout>List name Source area Area
Description (source for)
---------------------------------------------------------------------- cvs-CVSROOT /usr/src/[A-Z]* Top level /usr/src file changes cvs-all /usr/src All changes to the tree (superset) cvs-bin /usr/src/bin System binaries cvs-etc /usr/src/etc System files cvs-games /usr/src/games Games cvs-gnu /usr/src/gnu GPL'd utilities cvs-include /usr/src/include Include files cvs-kerberosIV /usr/src/kerberosIV Kerberos encryption code cvs-lib /usr/src/lib System libraries cvs-libexec /usr/src/libexec System binaries cvs-ports /usr/ports Ported software cvs-sbin /usr/src/sbin System binaries cvs-share /usr/src/share System shared files cvs-sys /usr/src/sys Kernel cvs-usrbin /usr/src/usr.bin Use binaries cvs-usrsbin /usr/src/usr.sbin System binaries</literallayout>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="eresources-subscribe">
<title>How to subscribe</title>
<para>All mailing lists live on <filename>FreeBSD.ORG</filename>, so
to post to a given list you simply mail to
<emphasis>listname</emphasis><email>@FreeBSD.ORG</email>. It will
then be redistributed to mailing list members world-wide.</para>
<para>To subscribe to a list, send mail to &a.majordomo; and include
<informalexample>
<screen>subscribe &lt;listname&gt; [&lt;optional
address&gt;]</screen>
</informalexample> In the body of your message. For example, to
subscribe yourself to freebsd-announce, you'd do:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; mail majordomo@FreeBSD.ORG subscribe freebsd-announce
^D</screen>
</informalexample> If you want to subscribe yourself under a
different name, or submit a subscription request for a local
mailing list (note: this is more efficient if you have several
interested parties at one site, and highly appreciated by us!),
you would do something like:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; mail majordomo@FreeBSD.ORG subscribe freebsd-announce
local-announce@somesite.com ^D</screen>
</informalexample> Finally, it is also possible to unsubscribe
yourself from a list, get a list of other list members or see the
list of mailing lists again by sending other types of control
messages to majordomo. For a complete list of available commands,
do this:
<informalexample>
<screen>&prompt.user; mail majordomo@FreeBSD.ORG help ^D</screen>
</informalexample> Again, we would like to request that you keep
discussion in the technical mailing lists on a technical track.
If you are only interested in the <quote>high points</quote> then it is
suggested that you join freebsd-announce, which is intended only
for infrequent traffic.</para>
</sect2>
<sect2
id="eresources-charters">
<title>List charters</title>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>All</emphasis>FreeBSD mailing lists have
certain basic rules which must be adhered to by anyone using them.
Failure to comply with these guidelines will result in two (2)
written warnings from the FreeBSD <ulink
URL="mailto:postmaster@freebsd.org">Postmaster</ulink>, after
which, on a third offense, the poster will removed from all
FreeBSD mailing lists and filtered from further posting to them.
We regret that such rules and measures are necessary at all, but
today's Internet is a pretty harsh environment, it would seem, and
many fail to appreciate just how fragile some of its mechanisms
are.</para>
<para>Rules of the road:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>The topic of any posting should adhere to the basic
charter of the list it is posted to, e.g. if the list is
about technical issues then your posting should contain
technical discussion. Ongoing irrelevant chatter or flaming
only detracts from the value of the mailing list for
everyone on it and will not be tolerated. For free-form
discussion on no particular topic, the <ulink
URL="mailto:freebsd-chat@freebsd.org">freebsd-chat</ulink>
mailing list is freely available and should be used
instead.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>No posting should be made to more than 2 mailing lists,
and only to 2 when a clear and obvious need to post to both
lists exists. For most lists, there is already a great deal
of subscriber overlap and except for the most esoteric mixes
(say "-stable &amp; -scsi"), there really is no reason to
post to more than one list at a time. If a message is sent
to you in such a way that multiple mailing lists appear on
the Cc line then the cc line should also be trimmed before
sending it out again. <emphasis>You are <emphasis
remap=bf>still</emphasis> responsible for your own
cross-postings, no matter who the originator might have
been.</emphasis></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Personal attacks and profanity (in the context of an
argument) are not allowed, and that includes users and
developers alike. Gross breaches of netiquette, like
excerpting or reposting private mail when permission to do
so was not and would not be forthcoming, are frowned upon
but not specifically enforced. <emphasis
remap=bf>However</emphasis>, there are also very few cases
where such content would fit within the charter of a list
and it would therefore probably rate a warning (or ban) on
that basis alone.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Advertising of non-FreeBSD related products or services
is strictly prohibited and will result in an immediate ban
if it is clear that the offender is advertising by
spam.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para><emphasis remap=bf>Individual list charters:</emphasis></para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-AFS</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Andrew File System</emphasis><!-- <br> -->
This list is for discussion on porting and using AFS from
CMU/Transarc</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-ADMIN</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Administrative issues</emphasis><!-- <br>
--> This list is purely for discussion of freebsd.org
related issues and to report problems or abuse of project
resources. It is a closed list, though anyone may report
a problem (with our systems!) to it.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-ANNOUNCE</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Important events / milestones</emphasis><!--
<br> --> This is the mailing list for people interested only
in occasional announcements of significant freebsd events.
This includes announcements about snapshots and other
releases. It contains announcements of new FreeBSD
capabilities. It may contain calls for volunteers etc.
This is a low volume, strictly moderated mailing
list.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-ARCH</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Architecture and design
discussions</emphasis><!-- <br> --> This is the mailing
list for people discussing FreeBSD architectural issues.
It is a closed list, and not for general
subscription.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-BUGS</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Bug reports</emphasis><!-- <br> --> This is
the mailing list for reporting bugs in FreeBSD Whenever
possible, bugs should be submitted using the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>send-pr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>
command or the <ulink
URL="http://www.freebsd.org/send-pr.html">WEB
interface</ulink> to it.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-CHAT</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Non technical items related to the FreeBSD
community</emphasis><!-- <br> --> This list contains the
overflow from the other lists about non-technical, social
information. It includes discussion about whether Jordan
looks like a toon ferret or not, whether or not to type in
capitals, who is drinking too much coffee, where the best
beer is brewed, who is brewing beer in their basement, and
so on. Occasional announcements of important events (such
as upcoming parties, weddings, births, new jobs, etc) can
be made to the technical lists, but the follow ups should
be directed to this -chat list.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-CORE</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>FreeBSD core team</emphasis><!-- <br> -->
This is an internal mailing list for use by the core
members. Messages can be sent to it when a serious
FreeBSD-related matter requires arbitration or high-level
scrutiny.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-CURRENT</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Discussions about the use of
FreeBSD-current</emphasis><!-- <br> --> This is the
mailing list for users of freebsd-current. It includes
warnings about new features coming out in -current that
will affect the users, and instructions on steps that must
be taken to remain -current. Anyone running <quote>current</quote> must
subscribe to this list. This is a technical mailing list
for which strictly technical content is expected.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-CURRENT-DIGEST</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Discussions about the use of
FreeBSD-current</emphasis><!-- <br> --> This is the
digest version of the freebsd-current mailing list. The
digest consists of all messages sent to freebsd-current
bundled together and mailed out as a single message. The
average digest size is about 40kB. This list is <emphasis
remap=bf>Read-Only</emphasis> and should not be posted
to.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-STABLE</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Discussions about the use of
FreeBSD-stable</emphasis><!-- <br> --> This is the
mailing list for users of freebsd-stable. It includes
warnings about new features coming out in -stable that
will affect the users, and instructions on steps that must
be taken to remain -stable. Anyone running <quote>stable</quote>
should subscribe to this list. This is a technical mailing
list for which strictly technical content is
expected.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-DOC</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Documentation project</emphasis><!-- <br>
--> This mailing list belongs to the FreeBSD Doc Project
and is for the discussion of documentation related issues
and projects.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-FS</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Filesystems</emphasis><!-- <br> -->
Discussions concerning FreeBSD filesystems. This is a
technical mailing list for which strictly technical
content is expected.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-ISDN</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>ISDN Communications</emphasis><!-- <br> -->
This is the mailing list for people discussing the
development of ISDN support for FreeBSD.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-JAVA</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Java Development</emphasis><!-- <br> -->
This is the mailing list for people discussing the
development of significant Java applications for FreeBSD
and the porting and maintenance of JDKs.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-HACKERS</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Technical discussions</emphasis><!-- <br>
--> This is a forum for technical discussions related to
FreeBSD. This is the primary technical mailing list. It
is for individuals actively working on FreeBSD, to bring
up problems or discuss alternative solutions. Individuals
interested in following the technical discussion are also
welcome. This is a technical mailing list for which
strictly technical content is expected.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-HACKERS-DIGEST</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Technical discussions</emphasis><!-- <br>
--> This is the digest version of the freebsd-hackers
mailing list. The digest consists of all messages sent to
freebsd-hackers bundled together and mailed out as a
single message. The average digest size is about 40kB.
This list is <emphasis remap=bf>Read-Only</emphasis> and
should not be posted to.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-HARDWARE</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>General discussion of FreeBSD
hardware</emphasis><!-- <br> --> General discussion
about the types of hardware that FreeBSD runs on, various
problems and suggestions concerning what to buy or
avoid.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-INSTALL</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Installation discussion</emphasis><!-- <br>
--> This mailing list is for discussing FreeBSD
installation development for the future releases and is
closed.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-ISP</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Issues for Internet Service
Providers</emphasis><!-- <br> --> This mailing list is
for discussing topics relevant to Internet Service
Providers (ISPs) using FreeBSD. This is a technical
mailing list for which strictly technical content is
expected.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-MULTIMEDIA</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Multimedia discussions</emphasis><!-- <br>
--> This is a forum about multimedia applications using
FreeBSD. Discussion center around multimedia applications,
their installation, their development and their support
within FreeBSD This is a technical mailing list for which
strictly technical content is expected.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-PLATFORMS</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Porting to Non-Intel
platforms</emphasis><!-- <br> --> Cross-platform freebsd
issues, general discussion and proposals for non-Intel
FreeBSD ports. This is a technical mailing list for which
strictly technical content is expected.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-PORTS</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Discussion of <quote>ports</quote></emphasis><!-- <br>
--> Discussions concerning FreeBSD's <quote>ports collection</quote>
(/usr/ports), proposed ports, modifications to ports
collection infrastructure and general coordination
efforts. This is a technical mailing list for which
strictly technical content is expected.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-QUESTIONS</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>User questions</emphasis><!-- <br> --> This
is the mailing list for questions about FreeBSD. You
should not send <quote>how to</quote> questions to the technical lists
unless you consider the question to be pretty
technical.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-QUESTIONS-DIGEST</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>User questions</emphasis><!-- <br> --> This
is the digest version of the freebsd-questions mailing
list. The digest consists of all messages sent to
freebsd-questions bundled together and mailed out as a
single message. The average digest size is about
40kB.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-SCSI</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>SCSI subsystem</emphasis><!-- <br> --> This
is the mailing list for people working on the scsi
subsystem for FreeBSD. This is a technical mailing list
for which strictly technical content is expected.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-SECURITY</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Security issues</emphasis><!-- <br> -->
FreeBSD computer security issues (DES, Kerberos, known
security holes and fixes, etc). This is a technical
mailing list for which strictly technical content is
expected.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-SECURITY-NOTIFICATIONS</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>Security Notifications</emphasis><!-- <br>
--> Notifications of FreeBSD security problems and fixes.
This is not a discussion list. The discussion list is
FreeBSD-security.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>FREEBSD-USER-GROUPS</term>
<listitem>
<para><emphasis>User Group Coordination List</emphasis><!--
<br> --> This is the mailing list for the coordinators from
each of the local area Users Groups to discuss matters
with each other and a designated individual from the Core
Team. This mail list should be limited to meeting
synopsis and coordination of projects that span User
Groups. It is a closed list.</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="eresources-news">
<title>Usenet newsgroups</title>
<para>In addition to two FreeBSD specific newsgroups, there are many
others in which FreeBSD is discussed or are otherwise relevant to
FreeBSD users. <ulink
URL="http://minnie.cs.adfa.oz.au/BSD-info/bsdnews_search.html">Keyword searchable archives</ulink> are available for some of these newsgroups from courtesy of Warren Toomey <email>&lt;wkt@cs.adfa.oz.au&gt;</email>.</para>
<sect2>
<title>BSD specific newsgroups</title>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.announce">comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.announce</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.misc">comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.misc</ulink></para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Other Unix newsgroups of interest</title>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink URL="news:comp.unix">comp.unix</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.unix.questions">comp.unix.questions</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.unix.admin">comp.unix.admin</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.unix.programmer">comp.unix.programmer</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.unix.shell">comp.unix.shell</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.unix.user-friendly">comp.unix.user-friendly</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.security.unix">comp.security.unix</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.sources.unix">comp.sources.unix</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.unix.advocacy">comp.unix.advocacy</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.unix.misc">comp.unix.misc</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.os.386bsd.announc">comp.os.386bsd.announc</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.os.386bsd.app">comp.os.386bsd.app</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.os.386bsd.bugs">comp.os.386bsd.bugs</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.os.386bsd.development">comp.os.386bsd.development</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.os.386bsd.misc">comp.os.386bsd.misc</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.os.386bsd.questions">comp.os.386bsd.questions</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.bugs.4bsd">comp.bugs.4bsd</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.bugs.4bsd.ucb-fixes">comp.bugs.4bsd.ucb-fixes</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.unix.bsd">comp.unix.bsd</ulink></para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>X Window System</title>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.windows.x.i386unix">comp.windows.x.i386unix</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.windows.x">comp.windows.x</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.windows.x.apps">comp.windows.x.apps</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.windows.x.announce">comp.windows.x.announce</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.windows.x.intrinsics">comp.windows.x.intrinsics</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.windows.x.motif">comp.windows.x.motif</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.windows.x.pex">comp.windows.x.pex</ulink></para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="news:comp.emulators.ms-windows.wine">comp.emulators.ms-windows.wine</ulink></para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="eresources-web">
<title>World Wide Web servers</title>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="http://www.FreeBSD.ORG/">http://www.FreeBSD.ORG/</ulink> <option>- Central Server</option>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="http://www.au.freebsd.org/FreeBSD/">http://www.au.freebsd.org/FreeBSD/</ulink> <option>- Australia</option>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="http://www.br.freebsd.org/">http://www.br.freebsd.org/</ulink> <option>- Brazil</option>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="http://www.ca.freebsd.org/">http://www.ca.freebsd.org/</ulink> <option>- Canada</option>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="http://sunsite.mff.cuni.cz/www.freebsd.org/">http://sunsite.mff.cuni.cz/www.freebsd.org/</ulink><option>- Czech Republic</option>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="http://sunsite.auc.dk/www.freebsd.org/">http://sunsite.auc.dk/www.freebsd.org/</ulink> <option>- Denmark</option>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="http://www.ee.freebsd.org/">http://www.ee.freebsd.org/</ulink> <option>- Estonia</option>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="http://www.fi.freebsd.org/">http://www.fi.freebsd.org/</ulink> <option>- Finland</option>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="http://www.de.freebsd.org/">http://www.de.freebsd.org/</ulink> <option>- Germany</option>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="http://www.ie.freebsd.org/">http://www.ie.freebsd.org/</ulink> <option>- Ireland</option>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="http://www.jp.freebsd.org/">http://www.jp.freebsd.org/</ulink> <option>- Japan</option>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="http://www.kr.freebsd.org/">http://www.kr.freebsd.org/</ulink> <option>- Korea</option>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="http://www.nl.freebsd.org/">http://www.nl.freebsd.org/</ulink> <option>- Netherlands</option>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="http://www.pt.freebsd.org/">http://www.pt.freebsd.org/</ulink> <option>- Portugal</option>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="http://www.se.freebsd.org/www.freebsd.org/">http://www.se.freebsd.org/www.freebsd.org/</ulink> <option>- Sweden</option>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="http://www.tw.freebsd.org/freebsd.html">http://www.tw.freebsd.org/freebsd.html</ulink> <option>- Taiwan</option>.</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><ulink
URL="http://www2.ua.freebsd.org/">http://www2.ua.freebsd.org/</ulink> <option>- Ukraine</option>.</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect1>
</chapter>
<chapter
id="staff">
<title>FreeBSD Project Staff</title>
<para>The FreeBSD Project is managed and operated by the following
groups of people:</para>
<sect1
id="staff-core">
<title>The FreeBSD Core Team</title>
<para>The FreeBSD core team constitutes the project's <quote>Board of
Directors</quote>, responsible for deciding the project's overall goals
and direction as well as managing <xref linkend="staff-who"
remap="specific
areas"> of the FreeBSD project landscape.</para>
<para>(in alphabetical order by last name):</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>&a.asami;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.jmb;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.ache;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.dyson;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.bde;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.gibbs;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.davidg;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.jkh;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.phk;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.rich;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.gpalmer;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.jdp;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.guido;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.sos;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.peter;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.wollman;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.joerg;</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="staff-committers">
<title>The FreeBSD Developers</title>
<para>These are the people who have commit privileges and do the
engineering work on the FreeBSD source tree. All core team members
and most FreeBSD Documentation project personnel are also
developers.</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>&a.mbarkah;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.stb;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.jb;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.torstenb;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.danny;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.charnier;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.kjc;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.gclarkii;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.cracauer;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.adam;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.dufault;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.uhclem;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.tegge;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.eivind;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.julian;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.rse; </para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.se; </para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.sef;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.fenner;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.jfieber;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.jfitz;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.lars;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.scrappy;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.tg;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.brandon;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.graichen;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.jgreco;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.rgrimes;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.jmg;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.hanai;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.ahasty;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.jhay;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.helbig;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.erich;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.hsu;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.itojun;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.ugen;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.gj;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.nsj;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.ljo;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.kato;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.andreas;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.imp;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.smace;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.mckay;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.jlemon;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.tedm;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.amurai;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.markm;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.max;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.alex;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.davidn;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.obrien;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.fsmp; </para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.smpatel;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.wpaul; </para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.jmacd; </para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.steve; </para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.mpp;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.dfr; </para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.jraynard;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.darrenr;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.csgr;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.martin;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.paul;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.roberto;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.chuckr;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.dima;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.wosch;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.ats;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.jseger;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.vanilla;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.msmith;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.brian; </para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.stark;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.karl;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.cwt;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.pst;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.hoek;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.swallace;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.nate;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.yokota;</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.jmz; </para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>&a.hosokawa; </para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="staff-doc">
<title>The FreeBSD Documentation Project
</title>
<para>The <ulink URL="http://www.freebsd.org/docproj.html">FreeBSD
Documentation Project</ulink> is responsible for a number of
different services, each service being run by an individual and his
<emphasis>deputies</emphasis> (if any):</para>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>Documentation Project Manager</term>
<listitem>
<para>&a.jfieber;</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Webmaster</term>
<listitem>
<para>&a.mbarkah;</para>
<para><emphasis>Deputy:</emphasis> &a.paul;</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Handbook &amp; FAQ Editor</term>
<listitem>
<para>&a.faq;</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Build Engineer</term>
<listitem>
<para>&a.paul;</para>
<para><emphasis>Deputy:</emphasis> &a.dave;</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Mirror Manager</term>
<listitem>
<para>&a.ulf;</para>
<para><emphasis>Deputy:</emphasis> &a.john;</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>News Editor</term>
<listitem>
<para>&a.nsj;</para>
<para><emphasis>Deputy:</emphasis> &a.john;</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Gallery and Commercial Editor</term>
<listitem>
<para>&a.nsj;</para>
<para><emphasis>Deputy:</emphasis> &a.cawimm;</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Style Police &amp; Art Director</term>
<listitem>
<para>&a.dave;</para>
<para><emphasis>Deputy:</emphasis> &a.opsys;</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Database Engineer</term>
<listitem>
<para>&a.mayo;</para>
<para><emphasis>Deputy:</emphasis> &a.cracauer;</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>CGI Engineer</term>
<listitem>
<para>&a.cracauer;</para>
<para><emphasis>Deputy:</emphasis> &a.stb;</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Bottle Washing</term>
<listitem>
<para>&a.nsj;</para>
<para><emphasis>Drying plates:</emphasis> &a.nik;</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1
id="staff-who">
<title>Who Is Responsible for What</title>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>Principal Architect</term>
<listitem>
<para>&a.davidg; </para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Documentation Project Manager</term>
<listitem>
<para>&a.jfieber;</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Internationalization</term>
<listitem>
<para>&a.ache; </para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Networking</term>
<listitem>
<para>&a.wollman; </para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Postmaster</term>
<listitem>
<para>&a.jmb; </para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Release Coordinator</term>
<listitem>
<para>&a.jkh; </para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Public Relations &amp; Corporate
Liaison</term>
<listitem>
<para>&a.jkh; </para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Security Officer</term>
<listitem>
<para>&a.guido;</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Source Repository Managers</term>
<listitem>
<para>Principal: &a.peter;<!-- <br> --> Assistant: &a.jdp;<!--
<br> --> International (Crypto): &a.markm;</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Ports Manager</term>
<listitem>
<para>&a.asami; </para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>XFree86 Project, Inc. Liaison</term>
<listitem>
<para>&a.rich; </para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>Usenet Support</term>
<listitem>
<para>&a.joerg;</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>GNATS Administrator</term>
<listitem>
<para>&a.steve;</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect1>
</chapter>
<chapter
id="pgpkeys">
<title>PGP keys</title>
<para> In case you need to verify a signature or send encrypted email to
one of the officers or core team members a number of keys are
provided here for your convenience.</para>
<sect1>
<title>Officers</title>
<sect2>
<title>FreeBSD Security Officer &lt;security-officer@freebsd.org&gt;
</title>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>FreeBSD Security Officer
&lt;security-officer@freebsd.org&gt; Fingerprint = 41 08 4E BB
DB 41 60 71 F9 E5 0E 98 73 AF 3F 11 -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY
BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.3i
mQCNAzF7MY4AAAEEAK7qBgPuBejER5HQbQlsOldk3ZVWXlRj54raz3IbuAUrDrQL h3g57T9QY++f3Mot2LAf5lDJbsMfWrtwPrPwCCFRYQd6XH778a+l4ju5axyjrt/L Ciw9RrOC+WaPv3lIdLuqYge2QRC1LvKACIPNbIcgbnLeRGLovFUuHi5z0oilAAUR tDdGcmVlQlNEIFNlY3VyaXR5IE9mZmljZXIgPHNlY3VyaXR5LW9mZmljZXJAZnJl ZWJzZC5vcmc+iQCVAwUQMX6yrOJgpPLZnQjrAQHyowQA1Nv2AY8vJIrdp2ttV6RU tZBYnI7gTO3sFC2bhIHsCvfVU3JphfqWQ7AnTXcD2yPjGcchUfc/EcL1tSlqW4y7 PMP4GHZp9vHog1NAsgLC9Y1P/1cOeuhZ0pDpZZ5zxTo6TQcCBjQA6KhiBFP4TJql 3olFfPBh3B/Tu3dqmEbSWpuJAJUDBRAxez3C9RVb+45ULV0BAak8A/9JIG/jRJaz QbKom6wMw852C/Z0qBLJy7KdN30099zMjQYeC9PnlkZ0USjQ4TSpC8UerYv6IfhV nNY6gyF2Hx4CbEFlopnfA1c4yxtXKti1kSN6wBy/ki3SmqtfDhPQ4Q31p63cSe5A 3aoHcjvWuqPLpW4ba2uHVKGP3g7SSt6AOYkAlQMFEDF8mz0ff6kIA1j8vQEBmZcD /REaUPDRx6qr1XRQlMs6pfgNKEwnKmcUzQLCvKBnYYGmD5ydPLxCPSFnPcPthaUb 5zVgMTjfjS2fkEiRrua4duGRgqN4xY7VRAsIQeMSITBOZeBZZf2oa9Ntidr5PumS 9uQ9bvdfWMpsemk2MaRG9BSoy5Wvy8VxROYYUwpT8Cf2iQCVAwUQMXsyqWtaZ42B sqd5AQHKjAQAvolI30Nyu3IyTfNeCb/DvOe9tlOn/o+VUDNJiE/PuBe1s2Y94a/P BfcohpKC2kza3NiW6lLTp00OWQsuu0QAPc02vYOyseZWy4y3Phnw60pWzLcFdemT 0GiYS5Xm1o9nAhPFciybn9j1q8UadIlIq0wbqWgdInBT8YI/l4f5sf6JAJUDBRAx ezKXVS4eLnPSiKUBAc5OBACIXTlKqQC3B53qt7bNMV46m81fuw1PhKaJEI033mCD ovzyEFFQeOyRXeu25Jg9Bq0Sn37ynISucHSmt2tUD5W0+p1MUGyTqnfqejMUWBzO v4Xhp6a8RtDdUMBOTtro16iulGiRrCKxzVgEl4i+9Z0ZiE6BWlg5AetoF5n3mGk1 lw== =ipyA -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>&a.imp;</title>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>Warner Losh &lt;imp@village.org&gt; aka
&lt;imp@freebsd.org&gt; Fingerprint = D4 31 FD B9 F7 90 17 E8
37 C5 E7 7F CF A6 C1 B9 -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: 2.6.2
mQCNAzDzTiAAAAEEAK8D7KWEbVFUrmlqhUEnAvphNIqHEbqqT8s+c5f5c2uHtlcH V4mV2TlUaDSVBN4+/D70oHmZc4IgiQwMPCWRrSezg9z/MaKlWhaslc8YT6Xc1q+o EP/fAdKUrq49H0QQbkQk6Ks5wKW6v9AOvdmsS6ZJEcet6d9G4dxynu/2qPVhAAUR tCBNLiBXYXJuZXIgTG9zaCA8aW1wQHZpbGxhZ2Uub3JnPokAlQMFEDM/SK1VLh4u c9KIpQEBFPsD/1n0YuuUPvD4CismZ9bx9M84y5sxLolgFEfP9Ux196ZSeaPpkA0g C9YX/IyIy5VHh3372SDWN5iVSDYPwtCmZziwIV2YxzPtZw0nUu82P/Fn8ynlCSWB 5povLZmgrWijTJdnUWI0ApVBUTQoiW5MyrNN51H3HLWXGoXMgQFZXKWYiQCVAwUQ MzmhkfUVW/uOVC1dAQG3+AP/T1HL/5EYF0ij0yQmNTzt1cLt0b1e3N3zN/wPFFWs BfrQ+nsv1zw7cEgxLtktk73wBGM9jUIdJu8phgLtl5a0m9UjBq5oxrJaNJr6UTxN a+sFkapTLT1g84UFUO/+8qRB12v+hZr2WeXMYjHAFUT18mp3xwjW9DUV+2fW1Wag YDKJAJUDBRAzOYK1s1pi61mfMj0BARBbA/930CHswOF0HIr+4YYUs1ejDnZ2J3zn icTZhl9uAfEQq++Xor1x476j67Z9fESxyHltUxCmwxsJ1uOJRwzjyEoMlyFrIN4C dE0C8g8BF+sRTt7VLURLERvlBvFrVZueXSnXvmMoWFnqpSpt3EmN6TNaLe8Cm87a k6EvQy0dpnkPKokAlQMFEDD9Lorccp7v9qj1YQEBrRUD/3N4cCMWjzsIFp2Vh9y+ RzUrblyF84tJyA7Rr1p+A7dxf7je3Zx5QMEXosWL1WGnS5vC9YH2WZwv6sCU61gU rSy9z8KHlBEHh+Z6fdRMrjd9byPf+n3cktT0NhS23oXB1ZhNZcB2KKhVPlNctMqO 3gTYx+Nlo6xqjR+J2NnBYU8p =7fQV -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1>
<title>Core Team members</title>
<sect2>
<title>&a.asami;</title>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>Satoshi Asami &lt;asami@cs.berkeley.edu&gt; aka
&lt;asami@FreeBSD.ORG&gt; Fingerprint = EB 3C 68 9E FB 6C EB
3F DB 2E 0F 10 8F CE 79 CA -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY
BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.2
mQCNAzPVyoQAAAEEAL7W+kipxB171Z4SVyyL9skaA7hG3eRsSOWk7lfvfUBLtPog f3OKwrApoc/jwLf4+Qpdzv5DLEt/6Hd/clskhJ+q1gMNHyZ5ABmUxrTRRNvJMTrb 3fPU3oZj7sL/MyiFaT1zF8EaMP/iS2ZtcFsbYOqGeA8E/58uk4NA0SoeCNiJAAUR tCVTYXRvc2hpIEFzYW1pIDxhc2FtaUBjcy5iZXJrZWxleS5lZHU+iQCVAwUQM/AT +EqGN2HYnOMZAQF11QP/eSXb2FuTb1yX5yoo1Im8YnIk1SEgCGbyEbOMMBznVNDy 5g2TAD0ofLxPxy5Vodjg8rf+lfMVtO5amUH6aNcORXRncE83T10JmeM6JEp0T6jw zOHKz8jRzygYLBayGsNIJ4BGxa4LeaGxJpO1ZEvRlNkPH/YEXK5oQmq9/DlrtYOJ AEUDBRAz42JT8ng6GBbVvu0BAU8nAYCsJ8PiJpRUGlrz6rxjX8hqM1v3vqFHLcG+ G52nVMBSy+RZBgzsYIPwI5EZtWAKb22JAJUDBRAz4QBWdbtuOHaj97EBAaQPA/46 +NLUp+Wubl90JoonoXocwAg88tvAUVSzsxPXj0lvypAiSI2AJKsmn+5PuQ+/IoQy lywRsxiQ5GD7C72SZ1yw2WI9DWFeAi+qa4b8n9fcLYrnHpyCY+zxEpu4pam8FJ7H JocEUZz5HRoKKOLHErzXDiuTkkm72b1glmCqAQvnB4kAlQMFEDPZ3gyDQNEqHgjY iQEBFfUEALu2C0uo+1Z7C5+xshWRYY5xNCzK20O6bANVJ+CO2fih96KhwsMof3lw fDso5HJSwgFd8WT/sR+Wwzz6BAE5UtgsQq5GcsdYQuGI1yIlCYUpDp5sgswNm+OA bX5a+r4F/ZJqrqT1J56Mer0VVsNfe5nIRsjd/rnFAFVfjcQtaQmjiQCVAwUQM9uV mcdm8Q+/vPRJAQELHgP9GqNiMpLQlZig17fDnCJ73P0e5t/hRLFehZDlmEI2TK7j Yeqbw078nZgyyuljZ7YsbstRIsWVCxobX5eH1kX+hIxuUqCAkCsWUY4abG89kHJr XGQn6X1CX7xbZ+b6b9jLK+bJKFcLSfyqR3M2eCyscSiZYkWKQ5l3FYvbUzkeb6K0 IVNhdG9zaGkgQXNhbWkgPGFzYW1pQEZyZWVCU0QuT1JHPg== =39SC -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>&a.jmb;</title>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>Jonathan M. Bresler &lt;jmb@FreeBSD.org&gt; Key
fingerprint = 31 57 41 56 06 C1 40 13 C5 1C E3 E5 DC 62 0E
FB -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.2
mQCNAzG2GToAAAEEANI6+4SJAAgBpl53XcfEr1M9wZyBqC0tzpie7Zm4vhv3hO8s o5BizSbcJheQimQiZAY4OnlrCpPxijMFSaihshs/VMAz1qbisUYAMqwGEO/T4QIB nWNo0Q/qOniLMxUrxS1RpeW5vbghErHBKUX9GVhxbiVfbwc4wAHbXdKX5jjdAAUR tCVKb25hdGhhbiBNLiBCcmVzbGVyIDxqbWJARnJlZUJTRC5PUkc+iQCVAwUQNA3x ffUVW/uOVC1dAQHGdAQAgsnYklBtVUdGuQwXB3bYp9omTD7CVD0aibVrz+lXiPDh aTVkOC1uhEwL59+R8VdpAnEDMobdZDA/ihCc+6/FW/eE0uyrWZzb5Ng9V1MfC6HI +sXpeXPy585Z56ewadV2yY9rvzcwmmUNHmAXT/5O0S2AWB0EJZ+cewTrokSTVVOJ AJUDBRA0C3EoVS4eLnPSiKUBASb+A/95g6w9DDPRGDlbsl4pN1BlSPKrmDQPRK1X C3bddDY2HNelSNhzp2FYD0WoN1re1vMJV0oaaJHwv7wjbe3+SYEX/IdmtfzI0MbZ Q/uPybPJOxi2ud6C6J+mEGJN9iBCnsaCz8CETuC9gR1mtxsxySUj9mk0fxKfdP6S 3QDrv6CQ1IkAlQMFEDKsi9CzWmLrWZ8yPQEBduUD/RhV4Qa89rYls9vtIFm6XBjZ 8mW37FYxeqIxg3ZrIyTMlghsOPV0f7zymCCWPRGKOLePRiGo0ZCEkDTYiM9tnwQI 09rmPWJb50yfTSZXjHx6+Hcm6O6BCmDFloo0Mxo6n9pvMH/TmmqHxCsAV+p8XEWy rMZvwVSynMxmJd17Y5HLtBNKb25hdGhhbiBNLiBCcmVzbGVyiQCVAwUQMbYtYQHb XdKX5jjdAQHEHwP/fEaQoTi7zKD1U/5kW2YPIBUyMTpLiO9QOr4stYjJvhHh4Ejw fGvMIhbFrPKtxSNH1s3m4jAXKXiQBDCz17IIzL4n8dlunxNGE5MHcsmpWzggyIg4 zbPqPOcg4gLFEWsEkr2o0akwzIGa3tbCvC+ITaX/rdlWV1jaQjTqSNyPZBM= =RV56 -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>&a.ache;</title>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>Andrey A. Chernov &lt;ache@FreeBSD.org&gt; aka
&lt;ache@nagual.pp.ru&gt; Key fingerprint = 33 03 9F 48 33 7B
4A 15 63 48 88 0A C4 97 FD 49 -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY
BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.3ia
mQCNAiqUMGQAAAEEAPGhcD6A2Buey5LYz0sphDLpVgOZc/bb9UHAbaGKUAGXmafs Dcb2HnsuYGgX/zrQXuCi/wIGtXcZWB97APtKOhFsZnPinDR5n/dde/mw9FnuhwqD m+rKSL1HlN0z/Msa5y7g16760wHhSR6NoBSEG5wQAHIMMq7Q0uJgpPLZnQjrAAUT tCVBbmRyZXkgQS4gQ2hlcm5vdiA8YWNoZUBuYWd1YWwucHAucnU+iQCVAwUQM2Ez u+JgpPLZnQjrAQEyugP8DPnS8ixJ5OeuYgPFQf5sy6l+LrB6hyaS+lgsUPahWjNY cnaDmfda/q/BV5d4+y5rlQe/pjnYG7/yQuAR3jhlXz8XDrqlBOnW9AtYjDt5rMfJ aGFTGXAPGZ6k6zQZE0/YurT8ia3qjvuZm3Fw4NJrHRx7ETHRvVJDvxA6Ggsvmr20 JEFuZHJleSBBLiBDaGVybm92IDxhY2hlQEZyZWVCU0Qub3JnPokAlQMFEDR5uVbi YKTy2Z0I6wEBLgED/2mn+hw4/3peLx0Sb9LNx//NfCCkVefSf2G9Qwhx6dvwbX7h mFca97h7BQN4GubU1Z5Ffs6TeamSBrotBYGmOCwvJ6S9WigF9YHQIQ3B4LEjskAt pcjU583y42zM11kkvEuQU2Gde61daIylJyOxsgpjSWpkxq50fgY2kLMfgl/ftCZB bmRyZXkgQS4gQ2hlcm5vdiA8YWNoZUBuaWV0enNjaGUubmV0PokAlQMFEDR5svDi YKTy2Z0I6wEBOTQD/0OTCAXIjuak363mjERvzSkVsNtIH9hA1l0w6Z95+iH0fHrW xXKT0vBZE0y0Em+S3cotLL0bMmVE3F3D3GyxhBVmgzjyx0NYNoiQjYdi+6g/PV30 Cn4vOO6hBBpSyI6vY6qGNqcsawuRtHNvK/53MpOfKwSlICEBYQimcZhkci+EtCJB bmRyZXkgQS4gQ2hlcm5vdiA8YWNoZUBuYWd1YWwucnU+iQCVAwUQMcm5HeJgpPLZ nQjrAQHwvQP9GdmAf1gdcuayHEgNkc11macPH11cwWjYjzA2YoecFMGV7iqKK8QY rr1MjbGXf8DAG8Ubfm0QbI8Lj8iG3NgqIru0c72UuHGSn/APfGGG0AtPX5UK/k7B gI0Ca2po6NA5nrSp8tDsdEz/4gyea84RXl2prtTf5Jj07hflbRstGXK0MkFuZHJl eSBBLiBDaGVybm92LCBCbGFjayBNYWdlIDxhY2hlQGFzdHJhbC5tc2suc3U+iQCV AwUQMCsAo5/rGryoL8h3AQHq1QQAidyNFqA9hvrmMcjpY7csJVFlGvj574Wj4GPa o3pZeuQaMBmsWqaXLYnWU/Aldb6kTz6+nRcQX50zFH0THSPfApwEW7yybSTI5apJ mWT3qhKN2vmLNg2yNzhqLTzHLD1lH3i1pfQq8WevrNfjLUco5S/VuekTma/osnzC Cw7fQzCJAJUDBRAwKvwoa1pnjYGyp3kBARihBACoXr3qfG65hFCyKJISmjOvaoGr anxUIkeDS0yQdTHzhQ+dwB1OhhK15E0Nwr0MKajLMm90n6+Zdb5y/FIjpPriu8dI rlHrWZlewa88eEDM+Q/NxT1iYg+HaKDAE171jmLpSpCL0MiJtO0i36L3ekVD7Hv8 vffOZHPSHirIzJOZTYkAlQMFEDAau6zFLUdtDb+QbQEBQX8D/AxwkYeFaYxZYMFO DHIvSk23hAsjCmUA2Uil1FeWAusb+o8xRfPDc7TnosrIifJqbF5+fcHCG5VSTGlh Bhd18YWUeabf/h9O2BsQX55yWRuB2x3diJ1xI/VVdG+rxlMCmE4ZR1Tl9x+Mtun9 KqKVpB39VlkCBYQ3hlgNt/TJUY4riQCVAwUQMBHMmyJRltlmbQBRAQFQkwP/YC3a hs3ZMMoriOlt3ZxGNUUPTF7rIER3j+c7mqGG46dEnDB5sUrkzacpoLX5sj1tGR3b vz9a4vmk1Av3KFNNvrZZ3/BZFGpq3mCTiAC9zsyNYQ8L0AfGIUO5goCIjqwOTNQI AOpNsJ5S+nMAkQB4YmmNlI6GTb3D18zfhPZ6uciJAJUCBRAwD0sl4uW74fteFRkB AWsAA/9NYqBRBKbmltQDpyK4+jBAYjkXBJmARFXKJYTlnTgOHMpZqoVyW96xnaa5 MzxEiu7ZWm5oL10QDIp1krkBP2KcmvfSMMHb5aGCCQc2/P8NlfXAuHtNGzYiI0UA Iwi8ih/S1liVfvnqF9uV3d3koE7VsQ9OA4Qo0ZL2ggW+/gEaYIkAlQMFEDAOz6qx /IyHe3rl4QEBIvYD/jIr8Xqo/2I5gncghSeFR01n0vELFIvaF4cHofGzyzBpYsfA +6pgFI1IM+LUF3kbUkAY/2uSf9U5ECcaMCTWCwVgJVO+oG075SHEM4buhrzutZiM 1dTyTaepaPpTyRMUUx9ZMMYJs7sbqLId1eDwrJxUPhrBNvf/w2W2sYHSY8cdiQCV AwUQMAzqgHcdkq6JcsfBAQGTxwQAtgeLFi2rhSOdllpDXUwz+SS6bEjFTWgRsWFM y9QnOcqryw7LyuFmWein4jasjY033JsODfWQPiPVNA3UEnXVg9+n8AvNMPO8JkRv Cn1eNg0VaJy9J368uArio93agd2Yf/R5r+QEuPjIssVk8hdcy/luEhSiXWf6bLMV HEA0J+OJAJUDBRAwDUi+4mCk8tmdCOsBAatBBACHB+qtW880seRCDZLjl/bT1b14 5po60U7u6a3PEBkY0NA72tWDQuRPF/Cn/0+VdFNxQUsgkrbwaJWOoi0KQsvlOm3R rsxKbn9uvEKLxExyKH3pxp76kvz/lEWwEeKvBK+84Pb1lzpG3W7u2XDfi3VQPTi3 5SZMAHc6C0Ct/mjNlYkAlQMFEDAMrPD7wj+NsTMUOQEBJckD/ik4WsZzm2qOx9Fw erGq7Zwchc+Jq1YeN5PxpzqSf4AG7+7dFIn+oe6X2FcIzgbYY+IfmgJIHEVjDHH5 +uAXyb6l4iKc89eQawO3t88pfHLJWbTzmnvgz2cMrxt94HRvgkHfvcpGEgbyldq6 EB33OunazFcfZFRIcXk1sfyLDvYE =1ahV -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>&a.jkh;</title>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>Jordan K. Hubbard &lt;jkh@FreeBSD.org&gt; Fingerprint =
3C F2 27 7E 4A 6C 09 0A 4B C9 47 CD 4F 4D 0B 20 -----BEGIN
PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.2i
mQCNAzFjX0IAAAEEAML+nm9/kDNPp43ZUZGjYkm2QLtoC1Wxr8JulZXqk7qmhYcQ jvX+fyoriJ6/7ZlnLe2oG5j9tZOnRLPvMaz0g9CpW6Dz3nkXrNPkmOFV9B8D94Mk tyFeRJFqnkCuqBj6D+H8FtBwEeeTecSh2tJ0bZZTXnAMhxeOdvUVW/uOVC1dAAUR tCNKb3JkYW4gSy4gSHViYmFyZCA8amtoQEZyZWVCU0Qub3JnPokAlQMFEDF75D1r WmeNgbKneQEBXtcD+gJIv8JzZRKlDZyTCQanK8iRgE+zMhxptI0kDObaGxT1BrpY 4/EPyiUN10G4k2Jb+DOc8Lg2xDQ3xmvgipFf9NMNV/ThaEuZ3wA31I6tW/arQEqB Tp8u6T3v20m62t7Afo9HaoE6MBpHQUk2TilxgAd5P57sporL3pgW9YojIO9ziQCV AwUQMXyV2h9/qQgDWPy9AQEMfgP/RmbSg2WlesATUQ4WuanjcdREduKPyfQatrXD 2xt+jg9X78dTyiNN1YvLqvT6msfs04MKSC0hA2mou6ozw8Xak+1QmP0fBOZKp9pP 8szO188Do9ByzJPvHF1eXT7jFMOXVq8ZIl9iwjxcIDLzlxOz49DC7LO6AT+LKQk7 UGeP+lqJAJUDBRAxe+UG9RVb+45ULV0BAXZ9A/9F9gLpGukVNkeOjaqxQdJGTS+a xh/Abk0c/nKhAEyxpAl5JyQ3ifYk6BHhPvlTi9LrZoXGA8sk/eU4eRTZVzvGEC4G +xsavlE/xzku8855QTLPpkCunUpQeu1wzaIrUUE6Zjh05imFbJYyQOBgTFpuqWsC rsUpl+2mr8IGIxG5rA== =LW9i -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>&a.phk;</title>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>Poul-Henning Kamp &lt;phk@FreeBSD.org&gt; Fingerprint =
A3 F3 88 28 2F 9B 99 A2 49 F4 E2 FA 5A 78 8B 3E -----BEGIN
PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.3ia
mQCNAzAdpMIAAAEEALHDgrFUwhZtb7PbXg3upELoDVEUPFRwnmpJH1rRqyROUGcI ooVe7u+FQlIs5OsXK8ECs/5Wpe2UrZSzHvjwBYOND5H42YtI5UULZLRCo5bFfTVA K9Rpo5icfTsYihrzU2nmnycwFMk+jYXyT/ZDYWDP/BM9iLjj0x9/qQgDWPy9AAUR tCNQb3VsLUhlbm5pbmcgS2FtcCA8cGhrQEZyZWVCU0Qub3JnPokAlQMFEDMGK9qz WmLrWZ8yPQEB4iED/18bQVhV2gUYFSxIUTaUtO2HVPi7GRpSzmXoTfS+FJyRR0ED zTqTHstoBe2PeWgTsOf9cUub5UKcJkRQp7VrJv4Kncyuq7pX69a+QMveCzuUwAur nDbt/emOL6NU8g9Uk50QuOuipb5rULQLRRoF5TkViy/VES83ERXdYQ9Ml3fWiQCV AwUQMX6NfWtaZ42Bsqd5AQEKsgP+L+uLz95dRdEmnZ+omrO+tYZM/0jHU7i8yC5q H0gguKOCljI4liR7NkqKONUJWYtfsTB81d9iSosBZRrTx6i/hB8l8kOB975n/f9S hftFwmjLYCNMFlDM4j0kySvMV20UZjAyv9BeE51VWlIZ5n/oeSuzul3Znow02tF/ zVnInJiJAJUDBRAxfJXn9RVb+45ULV0BAXJ8A/9K6NT6VLZZC5q3g7bBk5DWuzBS 3oK2Ebww6xzsD2R9edltoz1J3GPngK0CWpHh4kw5iTaRWoC2YJYRNG6icnGvlMAl 1/urqQHJVhxATINm8oljDKsj1RBJ6VKBzNbCJIHTVpX0AJoqUQX2Idi8goFr0fAm 7cD2CBb1JhoAdzEfO4kAlQMFEDFLHlwff6kIA1j8vQEBj5MD/1hA8hJdhpL7mvQj rTAIn6Ldr08Lr1lqTaKSBMdCL3suGlW0Sw/dIBgicPDhgxLahT3DVfGiIst32FSl xmWY7wine80X4TZkJ9Hiw3Mpqtjl92j6zHNq0ZZE+CceNubpEdYLDqokAIMPdWlo WPHZcPxCs5PKI5udseFYF2gQAjI2iQCVAwUQMTlDoO9huekR1Y7VAQGy+AP/Rzp+ UGtJavbSiPx5EnXOXxkA/+ulXQgQG9vdkWwewkvxDNOzHW3KkUWCGtPtIMENznbF j3QlYB+USIaf1ogvlD5EdXGPDfTINpE8CX2WXzajfgYFpYETDzduwjoWDZfEN9zZ fQqQS62VgAReOIz3k9BL708z/+WUO0++RLGCmImJAJUDBRAw5q8kAPLZCeu7G0EB AT3bBACwo+r9TgbiSyyU5cZpq5KgGT1c7eUHXjtxKmtrXD1nFNJ6j7x2DM2XGe6B YOfDWbFq4UkEAyAeXviuuUP4enQu1v2g7JGXeuI8bRM519pLdPzDq/DnbA4rNStn /SkH7awMfNSplcFuE6rc5ezVkw17eOHzDrYmwsFavL9gxZEycg== =Q45T -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>&a.rich;</title>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>Rich Murphey &lt;rich@FreeBSD.org&gt; fingerprint = AF
A0 60 C4 84 D6 0C 73 D1 EF C0 E9 9D 21 DB E4 -----BEGIN PGP
PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.2
mQCNAy97V+MAAAEEALiNM3FCwm3qrCe81E20UOSlNclOWfZHNAyOyj1ahHeINvo1 FBF2Gd5Lbj0y8SLMno5yJ6P4F4r+x3jwHZrzAIwMs/lxDXRtB0VeVWnlj6a3Rezs wbfaTeSVyh5JohEcKdoYiMG5wjATOwK/NAwIPthB1RzRjnEeer3HI3ZYNEOpAAUR tCRSaWNoIE11cnBoZXkgPHJpY2hAbGFtcHJleS51dG1iLmVkdT6JAJUDBRAve15W vccjdlg0Q6kBAZTZBACcNd/LiVnMFURPrO4pVRn1sVQeokVX7izeWQ7siE31Iy7g Sb97WRLEYDi686osaGfsuKNA87Rm+q5F+jxeUV4w4szoqp60gGvCbD0KCB2hWraP /2s2qdVAxhfcoTin/Qp1ZWvXxFF7imGA/IjYIfB42VkaRYu6BwLEm3YAGfGcSw== =QoiM -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>&a.jdp;</title>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>John D. Polstra &lt;jdp@polstra.com&gt; Fingerprint = 54
3A 90 59 6B A4 9D 61 BF 1D 03 09 35 8D F6 0D -----BEGIN PGP
PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.2
mQCNAzMElMEAAAEEALizp6ZW9QifQgWoFmG3cXhzQ1+Gt+a4S1adC/TdHdBvw1M/ I6Ok7TC0dKF8blW3VRgeHo4F3XhGn+n9MqIdboh4HJC5Iiy63m98sVLJSwyGO4oM dkEGyyCLxqP6h/DU/tzNBdqFzetGtYvU4ftt3RO0a506cr2CHcdm8Q+/vPRJAAUR tCFKb2huIEQuIFBvbHN0cmEgPGpkcEBwb2xzdHJhLmNvbT6JAJUDBRAzBNBE9RVb +45ULV0BAWgiA/0WWO3+c3qlptPCHJ3DFm6gG/qNKsY94agL/mHOr0fxMP5l2qKX O6a1bWkvGoYq0EwoKGFfn0QeHiCl6jVi3CdBX+W7bObMcoi+foqZ6zluOWBC1Jdk WQ5/DeqQGYXqbYjqO8voCScTAPge3XlMwVpMZTv24u+nYxtLkE0ZcwtY9IkAlQMF EDMEt/DHZvEPv7z0SQEBXh8D/2egM5ckIRpGz9kcFTDClgdWWtlgwC1iI2p9gEhq aufy+FUJlZS4GSQLWB0BlrTmDC9HuyQ+KZqKFRbVZLyzkH7WFs4zDmwQryLV5wkN C4BRRBXZfWy8s4+zT2WQD1aPO+ZsgRauYLkJgTvXTPU2JCN62Nsd8R7bJS5tuHEm 7HGmiQCVAwUQMwSvHB9/qQgDWPy9AQFAhAQAgJ1AlbKITrEoJ0+pLIsov3eQ348m SVHEBGIkU3Xznjr8NzT9aYtq4TIzt8jplqP3QoV1ka1yYpZf0NjvfZ+ffYp/sIaU wPbEpgtmHnVWJAebMbNs/Ad1w8GDvxEt9IaCbMJGZnHmfnEqOBIxF7VBDPHHoJxM V31K/PIoYsHAy5w= =cHFa -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>&a.guido;</title>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>Guido van Rooij &lt;guido@gvr.win.tue.nl&gt; Fingerprint
= 16 79 09 F3 C0 E4 28 A7 32 62 FA F6 60 31 C0 ED -----BEGIN
PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.2
mQCNAzGeO84AAAEEAKKAY91Na//DXwlUusr9GVESSlVwVP6DyH1wcZXhfN1fyZHq SwhMCEdHYoojQds+VqD1iiZQvv1RLByBgj622PDAPN4+Z49HjGs7YbZsUNuQqPPU wRPpP6ty69x1hPKq1sQIB5MS4radpCM+4wbZbhxv7l4rP3RWUbNaYutZnzI9AAUR tCZHdWlkbyB2YW4gUm9vaWogPGd1aWRvQGd2ci53aW4udHVlLm5sPokAlQMFEDMG Hcgff6kIA1j8vQEBbYgD/jm9xHuUuY+iXDkOzpCXBYACYEZDV913MjtyBAmaVqYo Rh5HFimkGXe+rCo78Aau0hc57fFMTsJqnuWEqVt3GRq28hSK1FOZ7ni9/XibHcmN rt2yugl3hYpClijo4nrDL1NxibbamkGW/vFGcljS0jqXz6NDVbGx5Oo7HBByxByz iQCVAwUQMhmtVjt/x7zOdmsfAQFuVQQApsVUTigT5YWjQA9Nd5Z0+a/oVtZpyw5Z OljLJP3vqJdMa6TidhfcatjHbFTve5x1dmjFgMX/MQTd8zf/+Xccy/PX4+lnKNpP eSf1Y4aK+E8KHmBGd6GzX6CIboyGYLS9e3kGnN06F2AQtaLyJFgQ71wRaGuyKmQG FwTn7jiKb1aJAJUDBRAyEOLXPt3iN6QQUSEBATwQA/9jqu0Nbk154+Pn+9mJX/YT fYR2UqK/5FKCqgL5Nt/Deg2re0zMD1f8F9Dj6vuAAxq8hnOkIHKlWolMjkRKkzJi mSPEWl3AuHJ31k948J8it4f8kq/o44usIA2KKVMlI63Q/rmNdfWCyiYQEVGcRbTm GTdZIHYCOgV5dOo4ebFqgYkAlQMFEDIE1nMEJn15jgpJ0QEBW6kEAKqN8XSgzTqf CrxFXT07MlHhfdbKUTNUoboxCGCLNW05vf1A8F5fdE5i14LiwkldWIzPxWD+Sa3L fNPCfCZTaCiyGcLyTzVfBHA18MBAOOX6JiTpdcm22jLGUWBf/aJK3yz/nfbWntd/ LRHysIdVp29lP5BF+J9/Lzbb/9LxP1taiQCVAwUQMgRXZ44CzbsJWQz9AQFf7gP/ Qa2FS5S6RYKG3rYanWADVe/ikFV2lxuM1azlWbsmljXvKVWGe6cV693nS5lGGAjx lbd2ADwXjlkNhv45HLWFm9PEveO9Jjr6tMuXVt8N2pxiX+1PLUN9CtphTIU7Yfjn s6ryZZfwGHSfIxNGi5ua2SoXhg0svaYnxHxXmOtH24iJAJUDBRAyAkpV8qaAEa3W TBkBARfQBAC+S3kbulEAN3SI7/A+A/dtl9DfZezT9C4SRBGsl2clQFMGIXmMQ/7v 7lLXrKQ7U2zVbgNfU8smw5h2vBIL6f1PyexSmc3mz9JY4er8KeZpcf6H0rSkHl+i d7TF0GvuTdNPFO8hc9En+GG6QHOqbkB4NRZ6cwtfwUMhk2FHXBnjF4kAlQMFEDH5 FFukUJAsCdPmTQEBe74EAMBsxDnbD9cuI5MfF/QeTNEG4BIVUZtAkDme4Eg7zvsP d3DeJKCGeNjiCWYrRTCGwaCWzMQk+/+MOmdkI6Oml+AIurJLoHceHS9jP1izdP7f N2jkdeJSBsixunbQWtUElSgOQQ4iF5kqwBhxtOfEP/L9QsoydRMR1yB6WPD75H7V iQCVAwUQMZ9YNGtaZ42Bsqd5AQH0PAQAhpVlAc3ZM/KOTywBSh8zWKVlSk3q/zGn k7hJmFThnlhH1723+WmXE8aAPJi+VXOWJUFQgwELJ6R8jSU2qvk2m1VWyYSqRKvc VRQMqT2wjss0GE1Ngg7tMrkRHT0il7E2xxIb8vMrIwmdkbTfYqBUhhGnsWPHZHq7 MoA1/b+rK7CJAJUDBRAxnvXh3IDyptUyfLkBAYTDA/4mEKlIP/EUX2Zmxgrd/JQB hqcQlkTrBAaDOnOqe/4oewMKR7yaMpztYhJs97i03Vu3fgoLhDspE55ooEeHj0r4 cOdiWfYDsjSFUYSPNVhW4OSruMA3c29ynMqNHD7hpr3rcCPUi7J2RncocOcCjjK2 BQb/9IAUNeK4C9gPxMEZLokAlQMFEDGeO86zWmLrWZ8yPQEBEEID/2fPEUrSX3Yk j5TJPFZ9MNX0lEo7AHYjnJgEbNI4pYm6C3PnMlsYfCSQDHuXmRQHAOWSdwOLvCkN F8eDaF3M6u0urgeVJ+KVUnTz2+LZoZs12XSZKCte0HxjbvPpWMTTrYyimGezH79C mgDVjsHaYOx3EXF0nnDmtXurGioEmW1J =mSvM -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>&a.peter;</title>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>Peter Wemm &lt;peter@FreeBSD.org&gt; aka
&lt;peter@spinner.dialix.com&gt; aka
&lt;peter@haywire.dialix.com&gt; aka
&lt;peter@perth.dialix.oz.au&gt; Key fingerprint = 47 05 04 CA
4C EE F8 93 F6 DB 02 92 6D F5 58 8A -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY
BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.3ia
mQCNAy9/FJwAAAEEALxs9dE9tFd0Ru1TXdq301KfEoe5uYKKuldHRBOacG2Wny6/ W3Ill57hOi2+xmq5X/mHkapywxvy4cyLdt31i4GEKDvxpDvEzAYcy2n9dIup/eg2 kEhRBX9G5k/LKM4NQsRIieaIEGGgCZRm0lINqw495aZYrPpO4EqGN2HYnOMZAAUT tCVQZXRlciBXZW1tIDxwZXRlckBoYXl3aXJlLmRpYWxpeC5jb20+iQCVAwUQMwWT cXW7bjh2o/exAQEFkQP+LIx5zKlYp1uR24xGApMFNrNtjh+iDIWnxxb2M2Kb6x4G 9z6OmbUCoDTGrX9SSL2Usm2RD0BZfyv9D9QRWC2TSOPkPRqQgIycc11vgbLolJJN eixqsxlFeKLGEx9eRQCCbo3dQIUjc2yaOe484QamhsK1nL5xpoNWI1P9zIOpDiGJ AJUDBRAxsRPqSoY3Ydic4xkBAbWLA/9q1Fdnnk4unpGQsG31Qbtr4AzaQD5m/JHI 4gRmSmbj6luJMgNG3fpO06Gd/Z7uxyCJB8pTst2a8C/ljOYZxWT+5uSzkQXeMi5c YcI1sZbUpkHtmqPW623hr1PB3ZLA1TIcTbQW+NzJsxQ1Pc6XG9fGkT9WXQW3Xhet AP+juVTAhLQlUGV0ZXIgV2VtbSA8cGV0ZXJAcGVydGguZGlhbGl4Lm96LmF1PokA lQMFEDGxFCFKhjdh2JzjGQEB6XkD/2HOwfuFrnQUtdwFPUkgtEqNeSr64jQ3Maz8 xgEtbaw/ym1PbhbCk311UWQq4+izZE2xktHTFClJfaMnxVIfboPyuiSF99KHiWnf /Gspet0S7m/+RXIwZi1qSqvAanxMiA7kKgFSCmchzas8TQcyyXHtn/gl9v0khJkb /fv3R20btB5QZXRlciBXZW1tIDxwZXRlckBGcmVlQlNELm9yZz6JAJUDBRAxsRJd SoY3Ydic4xkBAZJUA/4i/NWHz5LIH/R4IF/3V3LleFyMFr5EPFY0/4mcv2v+ju9g brOEM/xd4LlPrx1XqPeZ74JQ6K9mHR64RhKR7ZJJ9A+12yr5dVqihe911KyLKab9 4qZUHYi36WQu2VtLGnw/t8Jg44fQSzbBF5q9iTzcfNOYhRkSD3BdDrC3llywO7Ql UGV0ZXIgV2VtbSA8cGV0ZXJAc3Bpbm5lci5kaWFsaXguY29tPokAlQMFEDGxEi1K hjdh2JzjGQEBdA4EAKmNFlj8RF9HQsoI3UabnvYqAWN5wCwEB4u+Zf8zq6OHic23 TzoK1SPlmSdBE1dXXQGS6aiDkLT+xOdeewNs7nfUIcH/DBjSuklAOJzKliXPQW7E kuKNwy4eq5bl+j3HB27i+WBXhn6OaNNQY674LGaR41EGq44Wo5ATcIicig/z =gv+h -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>&a.joerg;</title>
<para>
<informalexample>
<screen>Type Bits/KeyID Date User ID pub 1024/76A3F7B1
1996/04/27 Joerg Wunsch &lt;joerg_wunsch@uriah.heep.sax.de&gt;
Key fingerprint = DC 47 E6 E4 FF A6 E9 8F 93 21 E0 7D F9 12
D6 4E Joerg Wunsch &lt;joerg_wunsch@interface-business.de&gt;
Joerg Wunsch &lt;j@uriah.heep.sax.de&gt; Joerg Wunsch
&lt;j@interface-business.de&gt; -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY
BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.3ia
mQCNAzGCFeAAAAEEAKmRBU2Nvc7nZy1Ouid61HunA/5hF4O91cXm71/KPaT7dskz q5sFXvPJPpawwvqHPHfEbAK42ZaywyFp59L1GaYj87Pda+PlAYRJyY2DJl5/7JPe ziq+7B8MdvbX6D526sdmcR+jPXPbHznASjkx9DPmK+7TgFujyXW7bjh2o/exAAUR tC1Kb2VyZyBXdW5zY2ggPGpvZXJnX3d1bnNjaEB1cmlhaC5oZWVwLnNheC5kZT6J AJUDBRA0FFkBs1pi61mfMj0BAfDCA/oCfkjrhvRwRCpSL8klJ1YDoUJdmw+v4nJc pw3OpYXbwKOPLClsE7K3KCQscHel7auf91nrekAwbrXv9Clp0TegYeAQNjw5vZ9f L6UZ5l3fH8E2GGA7+kqgNWs1KxAnG5GdUvJ9viyrWm8dqWRGo+loDWlZ12L2OgAD fp7jVZTI1okAlQMFEDQPrLoff6kIA1j8vQEB2XQEAK/+SsQPCT/X4RB/PBbxUr28 GpGJMn3AafAaA3plYw3nb4ONbqEw9tJtofAn4UeGraiWw8nHYR2DAzoAjR6OzuX3 TtUV+57BIzrTPHcNkb6h8fPuHU+dFzR+LNoPaGJsFeov6w+Ug6qS9wa5FGDAgaRo LHSyBxcRVoCbOEaS5S5EiQCVAwUQM5BktWVgqaw0+fnVAQGKPwP+OiWho3Zm2GKp lEjiZ5zx3y8upzb+r1Qutb08jr2Ewja04hLg0fCrt6Ad3DoVqxe4POghIpmHM4O4 tcW92THQil70CLzfCxtfUc6eDzoP3krD1/Gwpm2hGrmYA9b/ez9+r2vKBbnUhPmC glx5pf1IzHU9R2XyQz9Xu7FI2baOSZqJAJUDBRAyCIWZdbtuOHaj97EBAVMzA/41 VIph36l+yO9WGKkEB+NYbYOz2W/kyi74kXLvLdTXcRYFaCSZORSsQKPGNMrPZUoL oAKxE25AoCgl5towqr/sCcu0A0MMvJddUvlQ2T+ylSpGmWchqoXCN7FdGyxrZ5zz xzLIvtcio6kaHd76XxyJpltCASupdD53nEtxnu8sRrQxSm9lcmcgV3Vuc2NoIDxq b2VyZ193dW5zY2hAaW50ZXJmYWNlLWJ1c2luZXNzLmRlPokAlQMFEDIIhfR1u244 dqP3sQEBWoID/RhBm+qtW+hu2fqAj9d8CVgEKJugrxZIpXuCKFvO+bCgQtogt9EX +TJh4s8UUdcFkyEIu8CT2C3Rrr1grvckfxvrTgzSzvtYyv1072X3GkVY+SlUMBMA rdl1qNW23oT7Q558ajnsaL065XJ5m7HacgTTikiofYG8i1s7TrsEeq6PtCJKb2Vy ZyBXdW5zY2ggPGpAdXJpYWguaGVlcC5zYXguZGU+iQCVAwUQMaS91D4gHQUlG9CZ AQGYOwQAhPpiobK3d/fz+jWrbQgjkoO+j39glYGXb22+6iuEprFRs/ufKYtjljNT NK3B4DWSkyIPawcuO4Lotijp6jke2bsjFSSashGWcsJlpnwsv7EeFItT3oWTTTQQ ItPbtNyLW6M6xB+jLGtaAvJqfOlzgO9BLfHuA2LY+WvbVW447SWJAJUDBRAxqWRs dbtuOHaj97EBAXDBA/49rzZB5akkTSbt/gNd38OJgC+H8N5da25vV9dD3KoAvXfW fw7OxIsxvQ/Ab+rJmukrrWxPdsC+1WU1+1rGa4PvJp/VJRDes2awGrn+iO7/cQoS IVziC27JpcbvjLvLVcBIiy1yT/RvJ+87a3jPRHt3VFGcpFh4KykxxSNiyGygl4kA lQMFEDGCUB31FVv7jlQtXQEB5KgD/iIJZe5lFkPr2B/Cr7BKMVBot1/JSu05NsHg JZ3uK15w4mVtNPZcFi/dKbn+qRM6LKDFe/GF0HZD/ZD1FJt8yQjzF2w340B+F2GG EOwnClqZDtEAqnIBzM/ECQQqH+6Bi8gpkFZrFgg5eON7ikqmusDnOlYStM/CBfgp SbR8kDmFtCZKb2VyZyBXdW5zY2ggPGpAaW50ZXJmYWNlLWJ1c2luZXNzLmRlPokA lQMFEDHioSdlYKmsNPn51QEByz8D/10uMrwP7MdaXnptd1XNFhpaAPYTVAOcaKlY OGI/LLR9PiU3FbqXO+7INhaxFjBxa0Tw/p4au5Lq1+Mx81edHniJZNS8tz3I3goi jIC3+jn2gnVAWnK5UZUTUVUn/JLVk/oSaIJNIMMDaw4J9xPVVkb+Fh1A+XqtPsVa YESrNp0+iQCVAwUQMwXkzcdm8Q+/vPRJAQEA4QQAgNNX1HFgXrMetDb+w6yEGQDk JCDAY9b6mA2HNeKLQAhsoZl4HwA1+iuQaCgo3lyFC+1Sf097OUTs74z5X1vCedqV oFw9CxI3xuctt3pJCbbN68flOlnq0WdYouWWGlFwLlh5PEy//VtwX9lqgsizlhzi t+fX6BT4BgKi5baDhrWJAJUDBRAyCKveD9eCJxX4hUkBAebMA/9mRPy6K6i7TX2R jUKSl2p5oYrXPk12Zsw4ijuktslxzQhOCyMSCGK2UEC4UM9MXp1H1JZQxN/DcfnM 7VaUt+Ve0wZ6DC9gBSHJ1hKVxHe5XTj26mIr4rcXNy2XEDMK9QsnBxIAZnBVTjSO LdhqqSMp3ULLOpBlRL2RYrqi27IXr4kAlQMFEDGpbnd1u244dqP3sQEBJnQD/RVS Azgf4uorv3fpbosI0LE3LUufAYGBSJNJnskeKyudZkNkI5zGGDwVneH/cSkKT4OR ooeqcTBxKeMaMuXPVl30QahgNwWjfuTvl5OZ8orsQGGWIn5FhqYXsKkjEGxIOBOf vvlVQ0UbcR0N2+5F6Mb5GqrXZpIesn7jFJpkQKPU =97h7 -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----</screen>
</informalexample>
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
</chapter>
</part></book>
Reference in a new issue View git blame Copy permalink